A MISSIOLOGICAL CRITIQUE OF THE WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES’ NOTION OF JUST PEACE
A MISSIOLOGICAL CRITIQUE OF THE WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES’ NOTION OF JUST PEACE: ITS IMPLICATION AND CONTEXTUAL RELEVANCE FOR OVERCOMING VIOLENCE AND PEACEBUILDING IN THE MULTI-RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY OF JOS, NIGERIA”
Abstract
The study employed missiological lenses to critique the emerging ecumenical notion of Just Peace as an ideological concept, and also examined its contextual relevance and ecumenical implications as potent theory for overcoming violence and fostering sustainable peace in a multireligious and multicultural Nigerian Society. The Just Peace concept and process was adopted by the WCC at the International Ecumenical Peace Convocation that was held in Kingston Jamaica in May 2011 as a global ecumenical pedagogical approach for equipping and empowering churches in their missional engagements to overcome violence and build peace in human society. The objective of the research was mainly to critique the Just Peace concept through investigating the extent to which churches in Jos, Nigeria have understood and appropriated the concept in their process of responding to the conflict in their communities.
In cognisance of the global challenge in the quest for justice and peace, Just Peace, ecumenical concept of WCC was examined in order to determine its contextual relevance towards building a just and peaceful multi-religious and multicultural context of Jos, Nigeria. In doing justice to the foregoing, the research embraced three ideological theories which formed the theoretical framework upon which the research project was constructed. Konrad Raiser a German global ecumenist and former General Secretary of the WCC offers a missio-ecumenical framework that focuses on ‘a Culture of Life: Reconsidering Peace and Justice’ and William Tom Dickens, a professor of Religious Studies with special interest in inter-religious dialogue offering a covenantal framework that promotes peace among people of faith that embraces the Abrahamic tradition. To reinforce the two euro-centric theories, a third theory emerging from African context was employed, ‘Ubuntu’.
In a nutshell, the Culture of Just Peace canvassed in this research compels people of all faith traditions to deliberately perceive and discern rightly that justice and peace are free and priceless gifts of the Almighty God and must not be commoditized or politically transacted in any way or in any form. The Culture compels Christians and Muslims and indeed all people of faiths to question the authenticity and validity all religious teachings suspected to be perverted and divisive that have the propensity to instigate disregard and disrespect for the religious “other”, with the sole aim of building a peaceful and religiously cohesive society for all, and in consistent with the fundamental principles and philosophies of the various religions embedded in the sanctity of human life. Being religious cohesion does not in any way negate the principles of diversity but invites people of different religious affiliation to perceive and recognise that other religions other than theirs affirms life.
CHAPTER ONE
General Introduction
Peace is not just the absence of war. Peace cannot be built on foundations of injustice. Peace requires a new international order on justice and respect for the God-given humanity and dignity of every person Konrad Raiser (2002:79).
1.1 Introduction
This study seeks to critique the emerging ecumenical paradigm of Just Peace, and examine its contextual relevance and ecumenical implications for overcoming violence and fostering durable peace in the multi-religious and multi-cultural community of Jos, Nigeria. The Jos context of the research is plagued with intractable violent conflicts claimed to be fuelled by socio-political and religio-cultural factors (Best 2007:7). The Just Peace concept and process was adopted by the World Council of Churches (WCC) during the International Ecumenical Peace Convocation (IEPC) that was held in Kingston, Jamaica in 2011. It was adopted as a global ecumenical pedagogy to equip, empower and stimulate churches in their missional quest and engagements towards overcoming all logics and manifestation of violence and seek ways to promote sustainable peace in a fragmented world. Some churches in the city of Jos are members of WCC such as Church of Nigeria Anglican Communion, Presbyterian Church of Nigeria (PCN), Methodist Church Nigeria (MCN), Church of the Brethren in Nigeria (CBN), Nigeria Baptist Convention (NBC), Reformed Church of Christ in Nigeria (RCCN) and The African Church. The Christian Council of Nigeria commonly referred to as “CCN” is an affiliate body to the WCC and being a Nigeria-based ecumenical organization, it has members who do not subscribe to the vision and mission of WCC. While many of these church denominations that are members of CCN are not members of WCC, but in actual sense benefit immensely from WCC’s programmes because of their proxy membership via CCN.
Meanwhile, according to the record of attendance at the IEPC, four (4) among the WCC member churches in Nigeria participated in this ecumenical event. The convocation broadly deliberated and put forward proactive suggestions on how churches can visibly contribute more concretely in the efforts towards overcoming structural violence. The convocation also called the churches to intentionally work for the realization of the ecumenical notion of Just Peace (Chunakara 2013:236-266). According to the records, the churches that participated in the International
Ecumenical Peace Convocation from Nigeria included; Church of Nigeria Anglican Communion,
Presbyterian Church of Nigeria, Methodist Church Nigeria and Church of the Lord (Aladura) Worldwide (Chunakara 2013:236-266). The participants from these churches were official delegates from the national domain of their respective church denominations. Unfortunately, none of the delegates was from Jos. Even though, it may be speculated that the delegates on their return provided feedbacks to the leadership of their churches and same feedbacks transmitted to all units and branches of the churches. However, it was for this reason that one of the core objectives of this research will in the first instance critique the Just Peace concept and process and then proceed to assess the extent to which selective churches in Jos have understood and appropriated the concept and process within their conflict endemic community.
This undoubtedly provided the nexus between the research topic and research focus as can be seen in the subsequent sections and chapters.
1.2 Context of the research
1.2.1 Historical Overview of Jos, Plateau State
Jos is the capital city of Plateau State that is situated in the central belt of Nigeria (Nigeria 2007). Over the years, Jos has grown to become one of Nigeria’s premier tourists centre and the sixth largest producer of tin. It is populated by diverse tribes that include the Berom, Anaguta and Afizere (Bingel 1978:2). However, traders, butchers, Koranic teachers and other artisans also came to settle due to the commercial significance of Jos. All of the major ethnic groups have settled in Jos. This situation may have contributed to the socio-political and religious tensions experienced within the city. In recent years it has suffered violent religious clashes between its Muslim and Christian population in 2001, 2008, 2010, and 2011
Jos has been chosen as the social context for this study because of its socio-cultural and religious diversity and most importantly, the crisis situation that has robbed the city of its slogan ‘home of peace and tourism’. Neiers describes Jos, thus: “Jos is a cosmopolitan meeting place where the members of the various tribes represented tend to regroup themselves and live together in urban villages, in the midst of immigrants from every region in Nigeria and of a quite large nonAfrican population” (1979:132). The submission by Neiers presents the cosmopolitan nature of Jos as a city that has provided a home for Christians, Muslims and traditional worshippers for over a century. The adherents of the different religious faiths have coexisted for many years in Jos with extremely less visible tension. They have shared political and cultural spaces and formed alliances across board. Apparently, the story is changing or may be it has changed in the recent past that the social, political, religious and cultural varieties and diversity instead of enriching relationships and interaction between and among residents have resulted in tension, suspicion and stereotype and worst of all a deteriorating mutual relations between adherents of the two dominant religions that has led to perennial violence being experienced (Nguvugher 2010:155). The impact of such violent attacks has remained enormous and devastating with many human lives being killed, others maimed, properties destroyed and relationships adversely affected (Best 2006; 2007; & Nguvugher 2010).
Unfortunately, despite the opportunities and blessings that come with diversity, the growing religious intolerance, tension and mutual suspicion among residents of Jos have cast a bleak shadow on the social construct and outlook of the city. It is paradoxical that the city advertised itself as ‘Home of Peace and Tourism’ but the people have renamed it as ‘home of pieces and terrorism’, the peace that has been enjoyed in Jos has in the recent past been jeopardized due to the intermittent violence being experienced (Nguvugher 2010:147). This understanding and perspectives shared by the people on the contradiction noticeable in the foregoing contestation of the slogan of Jos on whether it is a home of peace or otherwise resonates with assertion put forward by Best, wherein he argues that: “Jos,… previously known for its peace and tranquillity, joined the growing list of locations with violent conflicts from the early nineties, with the biggest crisis occurring in 2001” (Best 2007:3).
1.2.2 Socio-Cultural Outlook of Jos
Jos happens to be the capital city Plateau State located in the middle belt region of Nigeria with good climatic weather that may have contributed in attacking many people of diverse backgrounds settling there. Furthermore, the State has over 30 ethnic groups each with a proud cultural heritage with no single group large enough to claim majority position. The people are generally hospitable and accommodating and have similar cultural and traditional ways of life. People from other parts of the country coexist peacefully with the indigenes. Some of the tribes in the State among others are Berom, Ngas, Taroh, Goemai, Youm, Montol, Rukuba, Kwagalak, Piapung, Buji, Irigwe, Mushere, Jarawa, Anaguta, Gashish, Pyem, Amo, Chip, Meryang, Fier, Bogghom, Mwaghavul, Ron-Kulere, and Aten (Nguvugher 2010; Best 2007; Bingel 1978). The people of the State are predominantly farmers but with very rich and diverse cultural heritage which they uphold religiously, resulting in the many festivals which provide entertainment to the people and visitors all the year round and also act as veritable tools of unity and progress for the various ethnic groups. Interestingly, all these ethnic groups scattered around the State have profound presence in Jos.
There are other tribes that came to settle in the State as a result of historical events. These include the Hausa, Fulani, Igbo, Yoruba, Ijaw, Bini etc. This is a State where unity is seen very much compatible with diversity. Plateau State, because of its numerous ethnic groups provides some of the dominant cultural traits of the Nation's rich cultural heritage. The cultural treasures and artefacts of the State occupy significant places of honour in galleries through the nation and beyond. Our dances and our songs have won distinction at international festivals (Nguvugher 2010; Best 2007; Bingel 1978).
1.2.3 The Prevalence of Violence in Jos
Nigeria as a nation state has over the years not too long after its independence experienced numerous political, economic, religious and ethnic motivated violent clashes; the worst of it was the civil war that had monumental impact in the country (Uwechue 1971:19). Unfortunately, some parts of the country, Jos included, the violent clashes or attacks have continued unabated. Noticeably, since the year 2009, the Islamic extremist group, “Boko Haram” which if translated from Hausa language to English language means; “Western Education is forbidden” (Umaru 2013:77). The militant extremist group has continued to unleashed terror on innocent citizens that oppose their perverted religious ideology. The group’s terror attacks have been mostly in three (3) major cities in the North-East geopolitical region of Nigeria with thousands of people maimed, killed and forcefully displaced (ICC 2013:6). Its indiscriminate use of Improvised Explosive Devices (IED) that have targeted churches, mosques, government installations and educational institutions in Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Kaduna, Kano, Plateau, Taraba, and Yobe states (Nigeria C&S Report 2013). In spite of the government action taken to put an end to such violence, through the use of state of emergency declared on 14th of May 2013 in three north-eastern States of Adamawa, Borno and Yobe that allows the security forces legal protection to fight the perpetrators, the situation has worsen each year (Krause 2011:38). Even though the three States are not part of the research context in a narrow sense but in different ways what happens in those States has implication on the wellbeing of Jos being a microcosm of Nigeria. It may be necessary to state that, Jos had its own experience of draconian authoritarian imposition of a full fledge State of emergency on 18th November 2004 due to protracted violent attacks in some parts of Plateau State with Jos as its capital city (Best 2007:249).
Consequently, the deteriorating socio-economic and political situation since the dawn of the current democratic dispensation that began on 29th May 1999 has resulted in further communal clashes that took religious outlook that have increased tension and suspicion between Muslims and Christians in Plateau States, and Jos in particular. The quest for sustainable peace and holistic justice in Jos constitutes an urgent need that has proven to be very elusive. The violent attacks in this city have taken a tragic dimension where women, children and the elderly have not been spared from the onslaughts of crime and violence that have engulfed the area (Krause
2011:43). Reinforcing the foregoing assertion, the document on ‘Curbing Violence in Nigeria (I): The Jos Crisis, Africa Report N°196 – 17 December 2012, reported that; “2011 was a particularly bloody year. Hundreds were killed during the first six months. Between 15 August and 12 September, over 150 lost their lives, with 50 in a week. These included pregnant women, children and an entire family. Ambe-Uva has argued that Jos’ reputation: “seems to be a thing of the past as the peace of the State has recently been questioned following the spate violent conflicts that erupted between different communities that had hitherto lived in peace and harmony with one another” (2011:58). The religious crisis within Jos suggests that the followers of Christianity and Islam need to change course from their confrontational non-life giving discourse and cross boundaries to rediscover common ground that facilitates the peace and justice tenet of their faiths to build wholesome communities. It is this protracted problem that provides the base for the research topic and focus.
1.2.4 Highlights of incidences of violent conflicts in Jos
As mentioned quite sparsely in some of the sections above Jos and its environs a decade running up to the second millennium has continued to experienced internecine violent clashes. Violence with different motivations occurred in Jos and environs that have been chronicled by different researchers and government reports. In 1990, there was a fierce confrontation that erupted between Christian & Muslim students as result of some administrative changes within the institution. In 1994, a crisis was triggered when a non indigene Muslim was appointed as Sole Administrator of Jos Local Government Area by the then Military Administrator of Plateau State, who was a Muslim. In 1996 a violent clash between Muslims and Christians occurred near the Central Mosque of Jos city. It was as a result of a tension that had built up over the death of a Christian youth, who raised an alarm during election on some irregularities and malpractices that were going on during the electioneering process in one of the large electoral ward. In the year 1997, a violent protest occurred because “a non-indigene Muslim” was appointed a Sole Administrator of Jos Local Government Area.
Similarly, in the same year of 1997, there was a report of another violent attack. The fierce battle that ensued between cattle herdsmen and the local farmers in one of surrounding communities of Jos. 1999 saw a resurgence of violent clashes between cattle herdsmen and the local farmers. Jos city and its environs in 2001 experienced monumental devastating violence that came with huge casualty. There was another bloody confrontation between cattle herdsmen and the local farmers in one of the suburbs. Still within the year, there was a protest by the indigenous tribes on the appointment of a so-called settler to coordinate the activities of the government agency responsible for poverty alleviation programme that turned catastrophic. Later in the year due to the fragility and volatility of Jos, many residents have become quite impatient with each that at the slightest provocation leads to violent confrontation that was led to the violence that took place in a marketplace in the city. In 2002 in one of the surrounding communities there was a violent clash between Fulani who are known as cattle herdsmen and mostly Muslim with the Beroms are known as farmers and mostly Christians. In same year there was a post-election violent that erupted, which supposedly was triggered so-called indigenes discovered that a socalled non-indigene Muslim Hausa person was leading in the primary election that will produce a councillorship ruling part flag-bearer (Plateau State Government 1994, Baldauf, 2010, Blench et al 2010, Nguvugher 2010, Ashafa & Wuyep 2011).
Furthermore, Jos in the year 2004 experienced two catastrophic violence that engulfed several parts of the State leading to the declaration of State of Emergency by the Federal Government and the second one was localized to Jos city which took tragic dimension due to the religious connotation linked to the crisis that took place in a distant region of Plateau State. In the year 2008, there was another fierce conflict which unfortunately was labelled a religious conflict because it involved Christians and Muslims over the result of local government elections that took place on November 28 and 29 in Jos. Most sadly, the two days of confrontation left over 400 injured and 381 killed. 2010 was another year that Jos and its environs experienced another most devastating attack that turned down the city with huge casualty. It was an altercation that ensued between a Christian and Muslim traders degenerated into fierce confrontation. That same year in one of the surrounding towns, Dogon Nahawa to be specific was invaded and attacked by unknown gunmen. The incidence was considered as one of the gruesome violence experienced in the area, with over five hundred (500) women and children killed, who were all Christians. It was alleged that the attackers were Hausa-Fulani herdsmen which points to the insinuation that the attackers were Muslims by common religious clustering of ethnic groups in Nigeria. In December 2010, the conflict situation in Jos gave a new twist to the whole episode of violent conflict in Jos and its environs. The use of improvised explosive devices and suicide killing were introduced. The Christmas period of the same year saw sporadic suicide bombing targeted at different Christian worship centres with many lives lost and churches burnt. 2011 also saw numerous attacks on the surrounding suburbs of Jos by some unknown people. Many people killed and properties destroyed. In January of 2011, there were almost daily clashes between Christian and Muslim mobs in villages around Jos since the series of bombs had been detonated during Christmas Eve celebrations of 2010 a month earlier (Plateau State Government 1994, Baldauf, 2010, Blench et al 2010, Nguvugher 2010, Ashafa & Wuyep 2011).
Apparently, since 2010 to this day, reports of violent attacks on surrounding suburbs of Jos have become recurring decimals. Both local and international media agencies have literally reported on weekly basis of some form of violent situations with people killed, homes burnt down and sources of livelihood destroyed. The perceived factors that cause such violent situations leading to lack of peace in Jos and environs will be discussed in chapter three.
1.3 Motivation/Rationale for this Research
The motivation to undertake this research is anchored on the researcher’s experiential knowledge of violent conflicts and its devastating impact on the people in Jos and its environs. The intractability of violence in conflict ridden region denies people the experience of social and economic wellbeing because of the plethora of upheaval leading to loss of not only human lives but properties and sources of livelihood. These have been the experiences of many of the residents of the context of this research. In addition, the researcher’s involvement with various ecumenical organisations locally, regionally and internationally shaped his ecumenical identity and vocation to undertake this research in a broad ecumenical sense. Most particularly, the researcher’s involvement with some of the World Council of Churches’ ecumenical programmes stimulated the desire to carry out an in-depth academic exploration of the ecumenical implication and contextual relevance of the Just Peace concept and process in a multi-faith and multicultural context of Jos, Nigeria in overcoming violence and promote a culture of peace.
Furthermore, the context of the research calls for in depth interrogation of the entrenched and systemic threats to just and peaceful co-existence among the people of diverse religious and political persuasions and affiliations. It is postulated in this thesis that churches that will be best equipped to make profound impact in the quest for sustainable and Just Peace in the multireligious and multi-cultural environment of Jos are those that would embrace a progressive ecumenism that possesses the force to stir in adherents and by extension residents of Jos and environs to embrace nonviolent lifestyle, with the hope that the lifestyle will be lived out in resolving any sort of dispute or disagreement in the community and contribute meaningfully towards community wellbeing and nation building. The researcher motivated by the existential reality of unwarranted tensions and manifestation of violent conflicts in Jos and its environs, it hoped that the people of Jos will embrace and express a culture that upholds religious and cultural plurality that makes and gives room for mutual respect as a viable support system within the community that cherishes and nourishes diversity and plurality of any kind that affirms life.
1.3.1 Research Gap
The quest for sustainable peace and holistic justice in today’s world and Jos to be specific is most urgent now than ever before. Therefore, the task towards realizing the quest has to be a collective responsibility of all peoples of goodwill, regardless of their social status and religious affiliation. Noticeably, most international and local media agencies both print and electronic such like Cable News Network (CNN), British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Aljazeera Media Network, Channels Television Nigeria, African Independent Television (AIT) Nigeria and others report on regular basis all kinds of violent conflicts and senseless attacks on people in different nations of the world. Such violent attacks have led to huge human casualties with many maimed, killed and valuable resources destroyed. Violence has become pandemic and contagious, and no country seems to be immune. By being contagious, it is justified on the grounds of incidences of importation and exportation of violent conflicts due to negative socio-political and religious solidarity, the case of Danish cartoon saga in the year 2005 that was greeted with violent attacks on innocent residents in some northern states of Nigeria, most particularly, Kano, Bauchi and Borno States in February 2006 (Gamji News 2006). To further complicate the situation, religion that should be life-affirming has been manipulated in many contexts to serve political agenda, thereby resulting in violent conflicts or insurrections such as the actions of Boko Haram in Nigeria since 2009 (Krause 2011:38). The manipulation of religion has resulted in fierce confrontation among the people leading to massive destruction of lives and properties on the basis of negative solidarity (Best 2007:44). The pressing need is not merely for any kind of peace but Just Peace. The peace that embodies deeper qualitative content that takes seriously issues of holistic justice.
It is therefore within this global challenge most probable and the profound quest for a just and inclusive society within diverse political contexts that the WCC sought to motivate its member churches, especially in those contexts where systemic violence has overwhelmed the lives of ordinary people, make the quest for Just Peace in their respective nations a missional priority and vocation. This study therefore seeks to examine the relevance of this ecumenical concept and the process that is advocated for the building of just and sustainable peace in a a multi-religious and multicultural environment in Jos, Nigeria. Before critiquing the Just Peace concept, a brief overview of the World Council of Churches will be presented in the next section in order to locate how the idea of the Just Peace concept has emerged within its life and work.
1.3.2 Ecumenical as a locution in this research
The term “ecumenical” is used in this study to embrace the entire inhabited earth,, cutting across religious and cultural identity and boundaries. Konrad Raiser, a German theologian and ecumenicist and former General Secretary of the the WCC,, traces the etymological understanding of the term "ecumenical," which can also take the ideological form "ecumenism..”. He began by linking it swiftly to the Greek transliteration of the term “Oikoumene” as being the pivot of the word.
He further states that “Oikoumene is a relational, dynamic concept that extends beyond the fellowship of Christians and churches to the human community within the whole of creation” (cited in Lossky et al., 2002:841). The description,, as advanced by Raiser,, safely makes clear that the term embodies the notion that the universal space or environment was created to provide habitation for the entire creation, including including humankind, animals, plants,, and all others. The description negates all manner of fragmentation, delineation,, and classification within the inhabited universe. Corroborating the ideal of humanity dwelling together mutually in the inhabited earth, Oduyoye argues that “it makes sense for those who believe that they belong to a common ancestor to meet together and attempt to talk with one voice and work for their mutual good, demonstrating their common identity and acting towardss their common goal” (Chilcote 2008:328). This understanding goes beyond the narrow use of the concept of “ecumenical” or “ecumenism” to refer to organisations that create spaces for different denominations and Christian organisations to cooperate towards a common objective with extensive all-embracing hunch that compels inclusivity in human relations with all regardless of creed, faith, cultural affinity, political persuasions and social associations, and the environment as well. It is against the foregoing assertions that this research embraces the wider use of the term to include people of other faiths as both participants and beneficiaries of both the intended and unintended outcomes of the research. This opinion is further premised on the understanding that,, within the context of Jos, the religion of Islam and its Muslim followers are conspicuously visible and considered strategic partners in the ecumenical quest for just peace.
1.4 Research Questions and Objectives
1.4.1 The Research Problem
Unfortunately, with the violent conflicts continuing unabated with huge collateral damages incurred, it will be wrong to argue that the slogan of the city of Jos, the capital of Plateau State,, should change from “Home of Peace and Tourism” to something different. Time alone will tell whether the slogan will have to change for the better or worse. Meanwhile, it is not the intention of the researcher to investigate the relevance of the slogan and the current trends that seem to question the veracity of the statement (Best 2007, Krause 2010, Nguvugher 2010).
Meanwhile, the study intends to explore and probe what is the nature of “Peace” that is “Just” that can be embraced as a “culture”, that has the propensity to transform the culture of violence that has engulfed Jos and its environs to be a more peaceful environment, thereby regain its pride of place and adorned as “Home of Peace and Tourism” in the entire nation of Nigeria (Best 2007, Krause 2010, Nguvugher 2010).
1.4.2 Hypothesis and Key Research Question
The research is hinged on the assumption that the human society, the environment included, aspires for a culture that will guarantee fullest of life characterized by holistic wellbeing. It should be a culture that will be embraced by all people regardless of their religious persuasion, ethnic identity, social class or political affiliation. A culture grounded in life affirming morality and ethics. Violence cannot be the culture that is being aspired for, because violence brings with it pain, sorrows and human sufferings. In order to suggest a culture to the people of Jos and environs who have continued to face different magnitude of violence in recent times, the research sought to provide answers to the primary question: what is the relevance of WCC concept of Just Peace and how can it be engaged and contextualized to assist churches and nonchurch actors in overcoming violence and peace-building within multi-religious and multicultural community of Jos?
To further guide the research in providing relevant responses to the research hypothesis, the following objectives were engaged and explored: first, the study utilized missiological approach to engage with the concept of Just Peace within the context of conflict violence in Jos, Nigeria. Second, it examined how the concept of justice has evolved within WCC’s concern for global peace. Third, it engaged the development of the concept of Just Peace within WCC. Fourth, it investigated the underlying socio-economic, political and religious factors that contribute to violent conflicts within Jos, Nigeria. Fourth, it demonstrated how the concept of Just Peace can assist WCC member churches in Jos in their effort to overcome violence and peace building. Finally, it identified some signposts of Just Peace emerging from the local context that may suggest alternative ways of overcoming violence and building peace.
1.5 Research Design
This segment of the chapter presents the architecture of the study and how it will be accomplished in a succinct manner. Like Kevin Durrheim has argued: “a research design is a strategic framework for action that serves as a bridge between research questions and the execution or implementation of the research” (Blanche 2006:34). The importance of having a clearly mapped out research design cannot be overly stressed because it is most cardinal to the success of the research as accentuated by Durrheim and other psychologist and social anthropologists. Durrheim went further to stress that: “research designs are plans that guide the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure” (Blanche 2006:34). Reinforcing the view on the significance of research design, Mouton and Marais affirmed that research design; “helps to plan and structure a given research project for it to achieve maximum results” (cited in Durrheim 2010: 37). Highlighting further the momentous role of research design in academic study, Durrheim emphasised that: “design coherence and validity are the ingredients for maximizing research findings” (2010:37). While Holloway opines that: “research design should limit its relevance and function at the proposal development stage” (1997:137). Whereas, Durrheim, on the other hand astutely upheld that: “research design is the blueprint of the entire study process” (2010:39). That is to say, it goes beyond the proposal stage as suggested by Holloway because it serves as the research architectural framework.
Giving impetus to the view that research design permeates the entire ramification of the research work, Mouton and Marais vehemently upheld that: “research design is significant to the whole research framework. It transcends the proposal level, thereby shaping the entire research study” (Durrheim 2010: 37). Hence, the research is structured in such a fashion that each step builds up to the other to the very last aspect of the research work. But essentially, research design embodies and exposes the whole research architecture, which includes, and not limited to; empirical method, purpose of the study, context of the study, theoretical paradigm, and research techniques employed to collect and analyse data. Therefore, research design if well laid out from the onset guides the entire research process to its logical conclusion with less stress and extremely minimal digression, when it becomes necessary, but not to the disadvantage of the research. As can be inferred from the various perspectives shared by the scholars quoted earlier, research design gives the study a sense of coherence and consistency to the last word and ensures that research guidelines are adhered to while undertaking an academic research.
1.5.1 Methodology and Methods
The study is a qualitative non-empirical research, which seeks to utilise information written documents as primary sources and some shared information by the selected key participants on some specific gaps that were not found in the written sources as the concept of just-peace is in its infancy and not much is yet written on how it can function in an multi-religious and multicultural context such as Jos. The researcher interacts with identified participants through the mechanism of experienced and practitioner informants’ discussion only. The individuals opted to be anonymous as their voices were less critical in overall outcome of the research, since the research is non-empirical. There was no formal interview arrangement with informants, but were engaged through unstructured informal discussions (interviews) in the conferences, workshops and seminars by the researcher asking them specific questions that were never brought to explicit discussion. Kochar (1985) identifies that informal discussions as methodology are governed by pre-determined set of rules and it includes debates, panels, symposia etc. These interviews were informal and were not controlled by a specific set of detailed questions. The interviewer was guided by a pre-defined list of issues on the concept of just-peace within Jos context. The informality of these discussions/interviews meant that the interviewer was not concerned with sampling because its aim was to find out what key players are thinking and reacting to the notion of just-peace (Crawford 1997).
By employing the methodological approach of qualitative non-empirical research to this research is appropriate and fits in neatly with literature review’ method applied in this research. Creswell reinforces the view that supports strongly the notion of qualitative inquiry as the methodology of choice when dealing with topic of this nature, wherein he says: “…not much has been written about the topic or the population being studied, and the researcher seeks to listen to participants and build an understanding based on their ideas” (2003: 30). Even though, Creswell’s view may seem to suggest extensive involvement of human participants in the kind of qualitative research he is advocating for, however, the aspect of his view that is most relevant to this work is where he raised the issue of filling the gap on the limited work done on the subject.
This resonates properly with the subject of Just Peace, which is the paramount focus of this research. Noticeably, the subject of Just Peace has not been substantially researched academically from ecumenical and missiological perspectives within Jos context, especially as a trajectory parallel to the notion of Just War, which is the intention of this research. Perhaps, it is right to state that immeasurable quantum of work has been done on the theme of justice and peace or vice versa.
Expatiating further on the relevance of applying qualitative method in this research work, it allows for new theological and sociological nuances that will certainly aid the researcher to go beyond initial preconceptions and frameworks, as against quantitative study which replaces informants’ expressions with figures. Evidently, that may have accounted for Smith’s affirmation that: “qualitative study helps one present the explanation of the process occurring in local contexts…chronological flow, assess local causality, and derive fruitful explanation” (1984: 15). But, Henning emphasizes the use of evidence from data collected and from the literature on the phenomenon being studied within the purview of qualitative research (2004:3). The aspect of drawing from repository of literatures that have engaged the various issues of immense concern to this research remains paramount as asserted by Henning. This understanding accounted for the utilization of the in-depth literature review approach in this research.
Apart from published literature in the libraries in South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria and Switzerland and online resources, the archival sources were consulted at WCC Archives in Geneva in order to get historic points on ecumenical conversations that led to the emergence of the “Just Peace” concept. Because the intention was to dig deeper towards trying to understand a tradition that may have been embraced by the ecumenical movement of declaring a period to affirm and express its commitment to global and continental causes. Attention given paid on extracting relevant minutes and other policy documents of the Council, particularly, resolutions reached on issues relating to Just Peace and overcoming violence that may have not been shelved in the relevant libraries of the ecumenical movement.
1.5.2 Methodological Progression
The research questions and the undergirding research objectives help determine research precisions and guides literature search processes. As earlier mentioned that the whole notion of systematic literature review compels the intellectual attitude of being vivid and rigour in literature engagement as asserted by Arksey and O’Malley that: “as possible in identifying primary studies and reviews suitable for answering the question” (2005:24). It is against the foregoing that the researcher intentionally planned to search for primary materials from different sources including electronic databases and other repositories towards providing unambiguous answers to the main research questions and other sub-questions as indicated in the first chapter of this thesis design. It will be appropriate to state clearly that all literature searches were guided by the key words of the main research question and the ancillary questions.
Obviously, the review of selected literature that have used ecumenical lenses to give ecumenical perspectives related to subjects of justice and peace, overcoming violence, religious fundamentalism and the Islamic thoughts on the subjects of peace and justice. The first part of the review will mainly focus on the Christian perceptions and perspectives on the outlined thematic foci. In order to be objective in some sense within the appropriate section, it would therefore be necessary to provide some reflections on Islamic thoughts on justice and peace. The intention is not to sharply digress from the focus of the research that seeks to present shared perspectives on matters of overcoming violence, advocating for justice, fostering peace and countering negative religious fundamentalism, but to offer critical perspectives of the themes that will hopefully facilitate further constructive engagements between and among people of the two main monotheistic religions, Islam and Christianity in Jos, Nigeria. It will also be safe to state that providing literature review on the aforementioned themes will not be exhaustive, but it is intended that some selected texts will be used for the purpose of expressing common denominators on the themes.
Furthermore, the literature review approach utilised began with identification, evaluation, and synthesizing of the available resource data that are related to the particular ideological concept or phenomena as argued by Kitchenham, Barbra (2007:vi). Employing the literature review approach was anchored on the value and credibility it gives to the research work. Barbra Kitchenham (et al) argues that: “... literature review is a means of evaluating and interpreting a particular research question, topic area, or phenomenon of interest. Systematic reviews aim to present a fair evaluation of a research topic by using a trustworthy, rigorous, and auditable methodology” (2007:iv). The rationale for the choice of the approach is necessary for this type of research because of its focus on existing literary data on the research thematic focuses.
Kitchenham provided profound ground for the essentiality and needfulness of a research tool as this in a bid to galvanize various literary works on a particular research issue or subject.
In order to identify and muster the necessary data for this academic study, the following prominent search engines and relevant institutions with recognised academic libraries were used, namely; EBSCOhost Research Databases, ATLA Religion Databases, Ŕero Union Catalogue, GlobeTheoLib Digital Library, CiteULike Digital References Library, Google Scholar, World Christian Database, Directory of Open Access Journals, UKZN Library, Pietermaritzburg Cluster Libraries, Geneva Library Network, WCC Library and Archives, University of Geneva Library, Geneva Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Library, and Wiley Online Library. In the course of the literature search and data gathering process, both online and hand search were adopted as simple but quality approaches.
1.5.3 Interpretive Tool: Content and Discourse Analysis
Having described the processes of data gathering during the course of this research, it would therefore be appropriate to present the processes through which the data collected were analysed. However, recognising the importance of data analysis in any form of academic research, John Swinton and Harriet Mowat affirmed that: “data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure, and meaning to the complicated mass of qualitative data that the researcher generates during the research process” (2007: 57). This argument brings to the fore the significant function of data analysis in order to make sense of the raw data gathered. The process enables the researcher to synthesize in coherent manner the raw feedback received during the course of the interviews for its usability in shaping the end results of the entire research work. Therefore, the research does not end with data collection but a means to the end. Meanwhile for the purpose of remaining consistent with the structure and approach of this research, the key informant interview sessions conducted provided complementary reinforcement to the main literatures used in this work. Since literature review methodology was adopted as the prime methodological research approach for data extraction and synthesis.
The study adopted as tool in analysing the raw data collected and critical texts used for the purpose of justifying the grounds for the usability of systematic literature review as a critical research methodological approached applied in this research, the grounded theory analytical tool underpinned by the simple inductive approach was used (Strauss, Anselm 1987). The grounded theory analytical approach allowed the researcher to employ the content analysis tool in the research methodology, which was most appropriate to be used as one of the tools for data analysis. Grounded theory analytical approach as argued by Henning refers to as: “all good interpretive inquiry should theorise and discuss data and conceptualise” (2004:47). Henning argues further that: “it is just good qualitative inquiry that is not theory driven, but data driven, with varying views of data from objectivist to subjectivist (or socially constructivist)” (2004:47). The tool is not without its deficiencies as Henning has argued that it has to be driven by data collected from either objectivist’s or subjectivist’s sources. This notion may not go well with other researchers especially in non-empirical research.
However, it remains potent in this form of inquiry carried out by the researcher, being that the various sources of data were mostly from some selected critical texts by relevant scholars that offer credible signposts in relation to prevailing themes in the research. Therefore, it accounted for the adoption of the simple inductive approach to undergird the content analysis processes applied in the course of data analysis and interpretation. Whereas, discourse analysis being the second data analysis tool was meant primarily for interpreting and deconstructing texts or narratives to uncover the embedded logic and meaning, and also to ascertain how the texts or narratives inform the language, ideas, and views that are used in the construction of textual reinforcement of this research. Blanche et al defines discourse analysis as: “...the act of showing how certain discourses is deployed to achieve particular effects in specific contexts” (2006:328). Blanche et al went on to assert that: “in discourse analysis, texts are examined for their effects rather than their veracity” (2006:333). Similarly, thematic analysis was used in the discourse analysis and categories of themes identified in the data obtained. Discourse analysis helped to identify how ideas and views are socially constructed; reason being that every speaker is located in a particular social context that informs the way they speak. Theological analysis was also used to engage the data with existing literature on the notion of Just Peace.
The data collected from the various literatures represents the primary data for the analysis being that was analysed through discourse analytical method. Therefore, it is evident that the work remains a non-empirical qualitative research rather than quantitative as it has heavily depended on literary sources as primary reservoir for its data. The coding of data collected was of immense significance to this research. The foregoing idea on the importance of coding data was echoed loudly by Emerson, wherein he asserts that: “coding is done in order to produce a coherent and comprehensible analysis for readers who are not directly acquainted with the social world of the participants” (1995: 142). The coded data was sorted into themes related to the research questions and other issues that emerged during thematic literature desegregation and triangulation, and also when the key informant interviews were carried out. The data were then coded thematically into the following main themes: the WCC pre-Just Peace initiatives, official declaration by the WCC on the Just Peace notion; Official Statement of the WCC member churches on the notion; the personal knowledge of the interviewees on the Just Peace Concept; other views on the notion of Just Peace; Factors militating against mutual relationship and peaceful co-existence between Christians and Muslims in Jos; Applicability of Just Peace concept for overcoming violence and entrenching enduring peace in Jos and its environ.
1.5.3 Research Site and Access
This research is mainly located within Jos, Nigeria. The reason for the choice of Jos is not farfetched because the subject of inquiry is most relevant to Jos. The city was hitherto known for its tranquillity and serenity, but has in recent time become a hub of religious bigotry, increasing tension, unwarranted suspicion and intolerance between adherents of the two dominant religions, Islam and Christianity (Best 2007:3). It can safely be extrapolated that such behavioural and attitudinal configuration, especially of lack of mutual trust and intolerant to religious and cultural diversities among some adherents of the two religions and residents of the cosmopolitan city of Jos and its environs may have led to violent conflicts, selected attacks and forced relocation that occurred in Jos. It has often times being considered that the violent conflicts that have remained intractable as both ethnically and religiously premeditated or motivated with heavy sociopolitical agenda. Even though such allegations are open for deeper verification and authentication.
Further, Just Peace paradigm, even though, a global conceptual ideology as embraced and vigorously propagated by the worldwide ecumenical movement seems to have a potential that propel locally affirmation and domestication. Meaning, the concept can be localized in its translation and application within a local context with minimal sophistication. It is with this understanding of local application and appropriation that the concept will be analysed and evaluated in order to ascertain and underscore its relevance and applicability in a multi-religious context that has experienced tensions and violent insurrections easily connected to religious and ethnic primordial agendas like Jos and some parts of northern Nigeria.
However, Jos is not the only site for this research, although, it remains the primary research location. Other sites include Ecumenical Institute Bossey and World Council of Churches – Ecumenical Centre Geneva. The use of the term, site, is mainly to refer to social location for data collection during the course of this research. In an effort to consult broadly and gather more data that will enrich the research, the researcher took advantage of his stay in Switzerland while studying at the Ecumenical Institute Bossey, which is in cooperation with University of Geneva to visit the headquarters of World Council of Churches (WCC). During the numerous visits, the researcher interviewed some principal officers on the notion and motivation behind the ecumenical call for Just Peace.
Furthermore, the researcher’s stay at Bossey undoubtedly afforded him the opportunity and time to carefully glean the literary materials that provide credible and robust evidences of discussions on the subject of justice and peace within the ecumenical movement that dovetailed into the concept of Just Peace. The two sites, namely; the WCC headquarters and the Ecumenical Institute Bossey are significant in providing the needed data for this study. Given that the research seeks to examine the ecumenical notion of Just Peace, its appropriateness as potent proposition for overcoming violence and building genuine peace in the pluralistic community stricken by intractable tensions and suspicion leading to violent insurrections like Jos, Nigeria. Apparently, the choice of these sites was intentional as they will provide the desired and appropriate data that will facilitate answering the main research question and sub-questions towards the achievement of the set out research objectives (Holloway 1997: 145). Herman Strydom corroborates with the whole idea of situating the research sites in congruence with the main question of the research, when he states that: “the choice of the problem is automatically directly linked to the particular field in which the inquiry is to be undertaken” (Strydom 2005: 282). The sites invariably were selected because of the consequential effect it have on the research. Obviously, for the purposes of communication and data management, the strategic interviews are conducted in English. The next section focuses on providing explanation on methodological limitations of the research.
1.6 Methodological limitations
Since every academic or non-academic research has its own limitations, therefore, it was an important point to consider the methodological limitations of this research. Apparently, there are always challenges, variations or opposing views that comes to bare in the course of an academic research, more especially of this type and nature. Such occurrences could be associated to any of these three factors, namely; limited resources, time frame, and human ability or deficiency. Like Patton asserted that: “to grasp the complex nature of the social reality” (2002:232).
The researcher’s insider position as a leader within the local ecumenical movement that has continued to bring the twelve WCC member churches located in Jos into fellowship, and also being familiar with the situations and participants afforded the advantage of interacting freely with the people and being able to readily earn their trust and cooperation. However this insider status has both disadvantages and advantages. According to Dahlberg et al have elaborately argued on the status of a researcher as an insider, wherein they say that such has its advantages and disadvantages (2010: 1- 12). Some of the disadvantages include the likelihood of being biased and viewing the issues at hand from the perspective of one’s position rather than as an objective researcher. To overcome this limitation, in-depth explanation of the role of a researcher was given in order to facilitate critical distance and respect for my role, not as someone ‘working on behalf of the church’ but as a scholar seeking critical information that will contribute to knowledge (Dahlberg et al 2010: 6). On the other hand, the insider researcher has the advantage of being familiar with the structures and specific knowledge of the subject of study. With this knowledge they can ask the most relevant and meaningful questions. At the end the exercise may help “increase professional skills and promote reflective learning” (Dahlberg et al 2010: 5-6). Similarly, Flick argues that: “one of the potential limitations of an outsider researcher is unfamiliarity with the people, their mode of operation and activities” (2002: 58). In that case, Flick suggests one should try to become an insider. Flick says further that: “A source of knowledge in this context is to gradually take an insider’s perspective to understand the individual’s view point or the organisational principles of social groups from a member’s perspective” (2002: 58). Another advantage of being an insider researcher is that one is familiar with the structures - in this case the church structures - and how they operate. However, being a pastor can also create power issue with lay members and with other pastors who have been students of the researcher. This potential problem was neutralised by avoiding an atmosphere built on church defined status, but one based on the academic objectives in which information was needed for the research purposes of a doctoral student.
According to Erik Hofstee; “All methods have limitations. Perfection is seldom if ever, attainable” (Hofstee 2009: 117). As such, this study does not claim any perfection; it has its own limitations as well. The participants’ cooperation was important because the lessons learnt from them have the potential of influencing the applicability of the Just Peace concept as virile ideological framework for attaining a religious plural society that is defined by just humanity underpinned by justice and peace. However, as noted, there were some limitations in the way in which data was collected.
Some of the participants were female even though extremely limited. Therefore, it was possible that certain gender issues may have arisen during the course of the research, but have not affected in any negative sense the outcome of the research. However, being a male researcher it became important to be gender sensitive by making the few women visible and ensuring that their voices included at all levels of this research. Apparently, full gender equity or equality was not possible, because of the hierarchical nature of church leadership and cultural socio-constructs of female participation in public affairs within the context of the research, which was regrettable.
The diversity in religion and culture within Jos and environs are also potential issues that limits the study, since the focus of the key informant study is mostly driven by one religious ideology, which was necessary in part for logistical reasons. The number of participants compared to the total population of both the local and global ecumenical movement membership and also the religious landscape of Jos and environs is small, but the participants do represent the entire facets of the research context to guarantee valid feedbacks and conclusion. Representivity in qualitative research relies on information-rich cases rather than on the size of the population studied. Since the participants were purposively and randomly selected, even though they were considered to be well positioned to provide critical information that addressed the research problem, because of their good knowledge of the research context (Silverman 2010: 194). Furthermore, Patton posits that: “The logic and power of purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-rich cases for study in depth. Information-rich cases are those from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the research….” (1990: 169). This means that the reliability and validity of my study will not be undermined like asserted by Hofstee (2009: 118).
1.7 Scope and Limitation
The scope of the research will be limited to Jos, Nigeria being the context that has provided the simulation for the research. Jos has been trapped in violent conflicts for years with many factors considered as responsible for interrupting the serenity and tranquillity enjoyed by residents for many years that went by. Further to that, the research sought to determine to what extent the religious groups especially members of the WCC in Jos contributed to social cohesion, Just Peace building and integration within the Jos area. Exploring further, the research will examine the extent in which religion may have been manipulated to instrumentalize violent conflicts and divisiveness in Jos between the year 1993 and 2013, which makes a period of two decades (20 years). The research will also investigate the contributions made by religious bodies and some civil society actors that may have induced a state of social stability that may secure the area for social transformation and development.
1.8 Literature Reviews
It is appropriate to state that the literature search has greatly enhanced and widen my academic horizon on the subjects being engaged with in this research.
1.8.1. Ecumenical Discourse on Justice and Peace
Issues concerning justice and peace have become important agenda and most urgent for communities threatened by systemic or structural violence and wars. The plural and highly diverse community of Jos, Nigeria represents one context within the vast African continent that visibly reflects a profound quest for overcoming all forms of violence and fostering genuine peace, especially among and between the different religious communities of faith. Peace and justice are inseparable concepts and/or notions that require each other for unquestionable authenticity. Geiko Müller-Fahrenholz in Petersen and Simion (eds.) supports in strong manner the perspective that: “peace does not deserve its name if it sanctions injustice. Justice cannot be introduced and sustained in situations of warfare. Therefore, it is fair to say that justice and peace are two sides of a coin” (2010:6). However, this perspective of justice and peace is sometime constructed to meet the interest of the elites rather than meeting the needs of those who live on the margins of society.
Conceptually peace is not only the absence of war. Therefore, Natalie Pearl in Petersen & Simion (eds.) asserts that: “peace can only exist when justice is achieved and that justice must be based on peace built on the preservation of human dignity and human rights” (2010:73). This argument is further elucidated by Wolfgang Huber in Barkat (ed.) wherein he asserts that: “Peace is not merely the absence of war and collective acts of violence; rather, the concept of peace implies the concept of justice, freedom and development” (1970:141). He goes on to argue that: “For if peace were merely defined as the absence of war and collective acts of violence, it would be quite compatible with unjust social conditions, political dictatorship and economic exploitation” (Barkat 1970:141). Therefore, Wolfgang Huber went on to fortify the foregoing assertions wherein he affirms that: “Action promoting peace would thus not aim at eliminating the causes leading to conflicts; it would merely try to eliminate their after-effects. Thus, a concept of peace which looks deeper than the symptoms must take due account of justice, freedom and development” (Barkat (1970:141-2). Therefore, without justice and peace the quality of life diminishes in human communities. Human beings living in any society that dichotomizes the existential expression of justice and peace no doubt experience fake well-being. For human beings to experience greater well-being, justice and peace must be made to operate as embracing framework that governs both immediate and wider interaction in the human society.
Furthermore, in trying to highlight the interconnectedness between justice and peace, the definition of the term “justice” was sought for from the Longman dictionary. Justice is describe as, “fairness in the way people are treated” (Longman 2003:878). The key terms in the definition are “fairness” and “treat”. The terms are important as they remind the human society and all systems in place to ensure that all humankind are treated fairly and by so doing peace can partly be guaranteed. Marshall in his effort to define justice postulates that: “justice is not a straight forward or singular concept. Justice is generic or inclusive term embracing a variety of meanings and applications. This makes it very difficult to reduce justice to a simple all-encompassing definition”(2005:6). However, Marshall goes on to strongly affirm that, “justice must be underpinned by just distribution of resources, equitability in adjudication, legitimacy of power and protection of rights of the human person” (2005:6-7). Therefore, justice involves the deliberate convergence of multiple approaches and actions that will ensure that all faucets of human existential realities within both civil and traditional frameworks of governance and interaction.
Meanwhile, Marshall’s notion of justice is relevant giving the encompassing dimensions of the operationalization of justice in human society he advanced. He brought to fore that justice must be predicated on equity, rights, distribution and power balance and anything short of that must be questioned or interrogated with the knowledge that should any of the defining vistas of justice is missing, such justice must be reworked to safeguard and entrench durable peace. Interestingly, it has been commonly shared that justice remains a concept premised on moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, equity and fairness; as well as the administration of the law, taking into account the inalienable and inborn rights of all human beings and citizens. Justice ensures that all people and individuals given equal protection and treated equitably before the law within the existing justice system without discrimination; whether on the basis of race, gender, sexuality, identity, national origin, colour, ethnicity, religion, disability, age, or other characteristics, and is further regarded as being inclusive of social justice (Rawls 1999, Konow 2003). Therefore, as a religious study targeted at the religious communities, it will suffice to say that restorative justice should be giving prominence and should be applied whenever and wherever injustice is meted out to any person or group. Werner argues that: “restorative justice, in which what has been taken wrongly from victims, is restored, either directly or in some symbolic way. This may be by reparation or compensation”(2013:310). Werner’s argument captures the notion of restorative justice that would be desired in Jos, Nigeria in order to bring about solid untainted reconciliation that will secure and booster peace between the so-called perpetrator and victim.
In essence, peace is better realised when justice is guaranteed. Apparently, it could well be alluded that it will be needful to critique the school of thought that holds to the claim that injustice may exist, but peace may still thrive. Such notion of peace remains a mirage, simply because such kind of peace is not underscored or defined by prosperity, tranquillity, serenity and well-being. Nicolas Wolterstorff asserts that: “...shalom incorporates right, harmonious relationships to nature and delight in our physical surroundings. Shalom comes when we, bodily creatures and not disembodied souls, shape the world with our labour and find fulfilment in so doing and delight in its results” (Wolterstorff 1983:70). Wolterstorff assertion resonates with the cravings of the common people in this research context for durable peace anchored on justice that facilitates mutual interaction in the society. Therefore, it can be safe to say that, it is a dream dreamt by the people, as they desire a community that is constructed and structured on the notion of caring for one another regardless of the religious or cultural affiliations of the people. It must also be acknowledged that it is not an easy task to make such dream a reality giving the complexities and complications within the wider society where greed, self-centredness, corruption and all manner of wickedness and cruelty are considered the norm not the exception.
Reinforcing the foregoing assertion by Wolterstorff on the notion of “shalom”, Yoder, a wellknown scholar in the intellectual discourse on the subject of “shalom” strongly affirms that: “shalom, a biblical peace, is squarely against injustice and oppression... shalom demands a transforming of unjust social and economic orders... shalom acts against oppressors for the sake of victims” (1987:5). The foregoing multiple perspectives as shared by Yoder on the crux of “shalom” as upheld and demonstrated within the Jewish tradition is profound. Yoder links Shalom concept to the Missio Dei which relates to the mission of God in the world where the church is invited to participate in. Yoder argues in affirmation to the above assertion that: “the Christian community is an agency of peace-making in ways often underestimated” (2007:130).
In the same vein, Friesen posits that churches “must evolve from traditions to non-resistance and non-participation in war towards active nonviolent peace-making which involves not only resistance and conscientious objection to war, but also active participation in the relief of suffering, building the institutions of peace and working to remove the causes of war” (2003:234). In order for this to be achieved, the church would have to adopt deep commitment in peace building by taking side through active nonparticipation in acts of violent conflicts or wars. Individually, it may prove to be ‘a bridge too far’ for individual churches to cross but through ecumenical partnership, churches can unite in missional and Koinonia relationship to strengthen their corporate stand against life denying forces of war and all manner of violent conflict.
Similarly, according to Strong (1995), Shalom is synonymous to totality or completeness, wholeness (both individual and communal), community, tranquillity, security, well-being, welfare, friendship, agreement, success, and prosperity. Strong’s view of shalom embodies the elaborate condiments that make for a just and peaceful society. Therefore, for a society to be said to be a peaceful society it must exhibit the outlined characteristics by Strong. It is no doubt not easy to find a society completely expressing such characteristics. However, it does not constitute an excuse but deliberate efforts must continually be made to make such characteristics a reality. In like manner, Donagh asserts that: “Christians ... above all, are obliged to respect the dignity of person-in-society by realising the values of inviolability, freedom, equality and participation” (1980:26). Donagh reminds Christians as a people or as a community of their obligation to ensure that right systems and structures that would guarantee respect and protection of human rights and dignity are entrenched and functional. Christians by Donagh’s argument have no excuse to be silent in the face of gross injustice, inequality and all manner of inhuman acts. Otieno concurs with the assertions put forward by Strong and Donagh on the roles that the church as a community of believers ought to play in safeguarding human society crude and brutal actions of others because of privilege power, thereby affirms that:
The Churches are indeed bequeathed with a great moral power to care for the weak and vulnerable lives. The church is called to be peaceable community in which the strong are willing to surrender their power for the sake of the common humanity. God then becomes part of such a community because it mediates justice and saving grace of the Spirit...hence peaceful and harmonious living among and between all people (2008:49).
Justice and peace are indispensable instruments of fostering reconciliation and restoring human relationship in communities that have been damaged by violent conflicts and intractable tensions and suspicions. The church is called to be a peace-building community that intentionally works to ensure that political and economic power function for the greater good and held accountable to the benefit of all humankind, and not for a few privileged individuals at the expense of the majority. The God who is at work in the lives of people is one who mediates and expresses complete justice that builds peace that will facilitate development. Knowing that progress and social transformation can only take place in an environment that have embrace the ethos of peace.
Notably, the advocacy commitment and initiatives of the ecumenical movement for the cause of justice and peace around the world could be seen in some of the programmes of WCC as outlined earlier. The programmes will be discussed subsequently with a view to deduce on whether the ecumenical movement’s efforts have contributed towards the adjustment and recalibration of law of engagement and modus-operandi by national governments and multilateral systems and organizations involved in peacekeeping intervention and other issues of human rights (WCC 2013:31-34). While documenting all the initiatives and engaged lead to the publication of many literary works by the World Council of Churches and such publications have continued to be used as intellectual references, some of whom the researcher has used in this study. Going further in the ecumenical movement’s quest for a violent-free human society, the WCC convened a consultation from 13th to 18th April 1996 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to develop a framework for the programme to overcome violence and for peace in the broader sense (WCC 2001:12). The framework captured in succinct manner the commitment of the ecumenical movement as expressed during its first assembly in 1948 in Amsterdam, Netherlands (Raiser 2002:51-2). Apparently the foregoing indicated in clear terms the urgency linked to the realization of peace fostered by justice as advanced by the ecumenical movement right from inception. The Rio de Janeiro consultation produced an elaborate and well thought out report that brought out in implicit way the ecumenical agenda and framework on overcoming violence and advocating for peace. The report of the consultation has consistently made reference to the ecumenical movement’s commitment to peace that must be anchored on authentic justice as expressed during its first assembly. One of the reference that stood out as reinforcement to the foregoing assertion that expresses the abiding commitment of ecumenical movement to the cause of justice and peace was; “since its first Assembly, the World Council of Churches has stressed the need to seek ‘peace with justice’” (WCC 1998:24). The statement reflects the unrelenting desire of the ecumenical movement to contribute its quota towards making the world a just and peaceful place for all.
The various perspectives shared above and the common quest for a peaceful world hallmarked by inclusive justice may have influenced programmatic expression of WCC on issues of peace and justice through the following programmatic intervention; Just, Participatory and Sustainable
Society (JPSS), the conciliar process for Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation (JPIC), the
Theology of Life (TOL) programme, Programme to Combat Racism (PCR), Programme to Overcome Violence (POV), and most recently, the Decade to Overcome Violence (DOV) declaration, which came about as resultant effects of the activities and impact of the Programme to Overcome Violence (WCC 2011:14). The quest for justice and peace in the ecumenical movement compelled the institution to organize two remarkable international convocations on justice and peace, namely; the World Convocation on Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation that took place in March 1990 at Seoul, Republic of Korea and the International Ecumenical Peace Convocation, which took place at Kingston, in Jamaica in 2011. These two events were profoundly incredible in shaping and oscillating the agenda for a just society for all, and to further guide the ecumenical movement in its effort to identify global methods and strategies toward combating violence and mitigating its adverse impact on humankind and the ecosystem.
However, the process revealed that the desirability manifested in the quest towards ‘overcoming violence’ will not necessarily result in the achievement of genuine peace that could be described as “just”, especially, when overcoming violence will not lead to the demolishing of unjust structures and transforming or reformulation of systems that are tolerant to all forms of injustice. However, it does not in any way suggest that violence should be allowed to continue, simply because all other structures that perpetuate injustice are not eliminated to allow for justice to take central place in affairs of human society. Apparently, overcoming violence is one consequential action that will contribute immensely to the stability of a community bedevilled by violent conflicts. In acknowledgement of the foregoing shared perceptions, the focus of the ecumenical movement shifted towards deeper quest for a "just, participatory and sustainable society" as a desirable reality to be experienced by all God’s creation (WCC 2011).
Ostensibly, the recognition of the persistence of abject or extreme poverty, especially in contexts where climate change precipitated by irresponsible human behaviour or action influenced by greed has no doubt made the plights of the poor more worst, majorly because of increasing threats to the earth's capacity to sustain human life. Such ugly scenarios have exacerbated the worsening condition of the people; thereby increase and accelerate the people’s susceptibility to becoming violent at slightest provocation. The WCC continued to appeal to the churches to make public their commitments and undertake common action on the threats to life in the areas of justice, peace and integrity of creation as part of the essence of what it means to be the church (WCC 2012:28). Embracing the nonviolence approach or mechanism in resolving contentious issues that relate to injustice and inequality will certainly be helpful and less stressful. It will also enhance life affirming interaction among the world’s citizens. Even though, it will not be foreclosed or pre-emptied that nonviolent principles be taken as a universal norm because there are violent actions have turned many other parts of the world turning millions of people into refugees and migrant fleeing their homelands because of violent conflicts taking place in the areas, which are reported almost on daily basis by international media. It may be easily said that some people or groups will rather opt for a violent reaction in order to express their perceived grievances. The call for nonviolence approach in resolving issues of injustice may not be fully accepted by some school of thoughts as they would rather have a caveat that provides for applying minimum force or some form of violent reaction in confronting injustice as earlier indicated. There are common adages in northern Nigeria often said in Hausa language, but I translated into English, thus: “Living in peace is far better than being a prince or princess’ and ‘whatever peace cannot bring or give, violence will most certainly not bring or give either”(A’isha Kabir Jos 2012). Therefore, nonviolence approach to resolving conflicting or contentious issues cannot be substituted or alternated with any other approach or strategy regardless of the ecclesial or political affiliation and ideological groundings of the presupposed opponents.
Since 1991, the ecumenical movement has embraced an ideological notion known as "theology of life". The notion invites the church and humanity as a whole to embrace in a very strong way the ideals of genuine peace that is accompanied by authentic justice for all God’s creation (Müller-Fahrenholz 1995:108-12; Enns 2007:149-61). Theology of life further compels humanity and in particular the church to renounce and denounce all theologies and philosophies that justifies the use of violence as ideal means of expressing dissatisfaction and resolving conflicts or disputes (Enns 2007:149-61; DEM 2002:893-5). Similarly, it reminds and loudly calls on the church to “confront, reject and overcome the spirit, logic and practice of war (violent conflicts) and develop new theological approaches, consonant with the teachings of Christ, which starts not with war and move to peace, but begins with peace that embraces justice in concrete form” (WCC 1995:16). In essence, the theology of life embodies peace and justice as its undergirding principles. Apparently, the church must understand that participating in MissionDei should compel the church to intentionally live out the biblical and theological ideals of peacemaking as most central in its life and witness in a highly pluralised world.
Therefore, the above outlined programmes of WCC, each of which built on the insights of its predecessor, sought to encourage the churches to make costly commitments to justice, peace and integrity of creation. It is imperative for the church as an institution and community to lead the way following the legacies bequeathed to it by Christ the head of the church on working for peace and peaceful coexistence among peoples of the world and peace with the environment.
1.8.2 Ecumenical Discourse on Overcoming Violence
The Decade to Overcome Violence as commonly referred to as “DOV” became a strategic step taken by World Council of Churches (WCC) to make its voice heard in the efforts toward a global society that is free of violent conflict (WCC 2011:7). The following reflective questions will be interrogated in order to understand the ecumenical perspectives that undergirded the focus on this life threatening phenomenon. Why a decade? Is it in the nature of international ecumenical organisation to use ten (10) years as a timeframe for project interventions rather than formulating a time line for action based upon contextual realities that shape the nature of the problem? What were the global factors in the 1990’s that made the overcoming of violence a global priority agenda item? What was the ecumenical understanding of the concept of violence? What was the WCC programmatic response intended to achieve and how feasible were the objectives? What was the state of violence in the world at that time? The “DOV” was adopted by the WCC Central Committee at its meeting in Geneva between 28th August and 3rd September 1999 as a follow up action to the 1998 WCC eighth assembly in Harare, Zimbabwe. During the committee meeting, a statement was issued that contained the following perspectives on peace and reconciliation:
We must give up being spectators of violence or merely lamenting it and must act to overcome violence both within and outside the walls of the church. We remind ourselves and the churches of our common responsibility to speak out boldly against any defence of unjust and oppressive structures, of racism, of the use of violence, including especially violence against women and children, and of other gross violations of human rights committed in the name of any nation or ethnic group. If churches do not combine their witness for peace and reconciliation with the search for unity among themselves, they fail in their mission to the world. Leaving behind what separates us, responding ecumenically to the challenge, proving that nonviolence is an active approach to conflict resolution, and offering in all humility what Jesus Christ taught his disciples to do, the churches have a unique message to bring to the violence-ridden world (WCC 1999:187-8).
This commitment to nonviolence as an active instrument in conflict resolution seems to link the thrust of the WCC with that of the United Nations Organisation (UN). The foregoing assumption could be substantiated in the commonality of some of the objectives both international organizations seem to share in the formulation of intents and purposes for intervention or action. The statement of the ecumenical movement that suggests common focus can be deduced from the statement following:
The Decade to Overcome Violence will provide a platform to share stories and experiences, develop relationships and learn from each other. The Decade will build upon the initiatives that are already there; we recognize that our work is parallel to the work of the United Nations "Decade for a Culture of Peace and Nonviolence for the Children of the World". We hope to connect with such initiatives and help them to motivate and strengthen each other. It will facilitate the churches to assist and support each other in their ministry. We offer with the Decade to Overcome Violence a truly ecumenical space, a safe space for encounter, mutual recognition, and common action. We will strive together to overcome the spirit, logic and practice of violence. We will work together to be agents of reconciliation and peace with justice in homes, churches and communities as well as in the political, social and economic structures at national and international levels. We will co-operate to build a culture of peace that is based on just and sustainable communities (WCC 1999:189).
The statement brought out clearly a number of features that strongly conveys the uncompromising goal by both international organizations for overcoming violence being experienced in different parts of the world. The distinction between the two may be strongly anchored on their principles and intervention frameworks in mitigating violent conflicts. Meanwhile, the researcher questions whether or not the WCC was naive in its quest to overcome violence. However, one cannot conclude on whether the WCC quest emerged from the groundswell of demands from its member churches. Rather, it could be argued that the WCC may as well be simply following a strategic focused agenda that was already determined by more powerful political multilateral organizations like the UN and other international bodies such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)? It is not in doubt that these multilateral governmental institutions, UN and NATO, are committed to peace, however, they are prepared to engage in violence using weapons of war as tools for resolving violent conflicts (Glanville 2012:322). It may be speculated that these institutions and other nation-states’ interventions in violent conflict situations have rather escalated the violence possibly because of their aggressive strategy of engagement, where the civilian populations are grossly harmed and often times bear the brunt of the military offensive.
Accordingly, there are instances in which Presidents of United States of America (USA), precisely, Presidents, George W. Bush and Barack Obama that may have suggested blatant sanctioning of military intervention in the name of peacekeeping. Such shared views political leaders from the northern hemisphere contradict the views of many people committed to cause of genuine peace and justice that is achieved through nonviolent approaches. Could there be a hidden agenda between these Northern Organisations that speak of overcoming violence but are prepared to wage war to achieve their invisible objectives? How can the use of heavy and light arms or weapons bring about sustainable peace? Considering that the WCC is located in the same premier Northern city of Geneva that is also host to many international political, economic and financial organisations, serious questions must be asked about the nature of relationship that exist between this ecumenical instrument and these other institutions or organisations. This research may attempt to explore the nature of relationship the WCC maintains with these organizations, and further interrogate on whether the WCC was therefore being used by these international institutions as a strategic global instrument to carry out their political agenda? And also examine on whether the WCC was able to maintain its missional identity and critical solidarity relationship without losing its own credibility and commitment to the pursuit of authentic peace? Nevertheless, this research is not mainly intended to deeply carry out a diagnosis of the relations between the ecumenical movement and the multilateral organizations being that such does not constitute a major part of the scope of this research.
Since the WCC has been formed to equip and strengthen the capacity of its member churches for active missio-Dei with the expectation that they will proactively engage in the world’s agenda of transforming the issues and factors that result in human conflicts and violence by making it missional priority and agenda (Lossky 2002:27-9). Consequently, in 1969, WCC convened a consultation on “Alternatives to Conflict in the Quest for Peace” in order to make it unequivocally known its commitment to the cause of peace. Emerging out of the consultation was a document titled; “Conflict, Violence and Peace” (Barkat ed. 1970). This specific publication articulated the commitment of WCC towards advocating for viable alternative to the prevalence of violence as a just means of resolving conflict or injustice being experienced by people, community and by extension a nation-state.
To buttress further on the question on the use of alternatives while discussing the subject of conflicts, Barkat says that: “the use of the phrase ‘alternatives’ to conflict may raise some difficulties and misunderstandings which require clarification… the writer does not want to give the impression that conflict can be completely eliminated from society, or that there are final ‘alternatives’ to the conflict in society” (1970:11). He further clarified that: “there are alternatives in specific conflict situation which need to be clearly understood and sought after for the management of the conflict. Only an idealist could dream of a domestic and international society free of all conflicts”(Barkat 1970:11). This seminal text emerging from the WCC consultation on alternatives to conflicts demonstrates the commitment of the ecumenical movement towards advancing alternatives to violence as mechanism for managing conflicting interests and agendas. The use of alternatives must not be taken as a call for possible application of violent reaction in expressing discontentment and dissatisfaction, but to be viewed as an ideological strategy intended to foreclose or eliminate conceiving thought of violent approach to resolving unjust issues and maltreatment.
Barkat acknowledged that conflict and violence are imminent in human society, wherein he argued that: “not every conflict leads necessary to violence. Violence is potentially present in all conflict situations. It must not necessarily be overt. Whether the conflict will result in violence depends upon the nature of the structure and the level of conflict in a given situation”(1970:11). The statement implies that certain structures of the society in which people live may facilitate violence in resolving injustice. Therefore, attention and extra efforts must be made towards structural analysis of conflict situation in order to proffer durable solution for the avoidance of reoccurrence of violent conflict in any human society.
Furthermore, recognizing the impact that WCC has made and will continue to make in advancing the cause of non-violence approach in resolving conflicts and issues of injustice, Bishop Stanley Mogoba in his sermon during the 1994 WCC Central Committee meeting held in Johannesburg, South Africa, initiated the call for a programmatic expression to the WCC emphasis on overcoming violence: “After the WCC’s Programme to Combat Racism has contributed so much to overcome apartheid, is it not time now to create a Programme to Combat Violence?” (1998:1). The foregoing statement stimulated deeper quest for active involvement of the ecumenical movement in making violence approach in resolving contentious issues as human worst enemy.
The WCC Central Committee during the Johannesburg meeting having been challenged by Bishop Mogoba’s sermon and the troubling reports received about ongoing violence in some parts of the world unanimously resolved that: “the World Council of Churches establish a Programme to Overcome Violence, with the purpose of challenging and transforming the global culture of violence in the direction of a culture of just peace” (1995:17). A strategic framework was designed by selective experts from member churches for the programme that clearly shows direction, targets, goals and guiding principles to ensure collegiality and consistency in the implementation of the programme (WCC 1995:19). The resolution was a milestone in the history of the ecumenical movement in expressing its unwavering dedication to discredit and make violent actions most unattractive both as a contradiction and contravention of the law of love as set by the creator of the universe and humankinds.
Acknowledging that violence is a serious threat to life, the need for non-violent approaches to resolving any form of human differences constitutes an urgent missional mandate for the churches. Kässmann argues that: “it is high time for the churches to think afresh about their position in regard to violence. Violence threatens life on earth which Christian men and women know to be created by God. Christians are therefore bound to be concerned about the destruction of human beings, human dignity, our fellow creatures and the world we live” (1998:2). It will be safe to state that any Christian church that fails to prioritize the message of nonviolent approach to resolving conflict its mission, witness and vocation should be questioned, knowing that the Christ of the church has instructed the church to propagate the message of peace in season and out of season. It is therefore expedient for churches to intentionally advocate for nonviolent principles in expressing and confronting all manners of conflicts and dissatisfaction by citizens.
Following the resolution taken by the Central Committee of WCC to establish “Programme to Overcome Violence” came the declaration of the “Decade to Overcome Violence (DOV)”. The strategic objective of the DOV according to Konrad Raiser a former General Secretary of the World Council of Churches, was a new ecumenical ethos meant to “promote a culture of peace and nonviolence through the Decade to Overcome Violence: Churches Seeking Reconciliation and Peace…and all people of goodwill to work together to overcome violence through peace and justice (2001 – 2010)” (WCC 2000:5). The Decade to Overcome Violence (DOV) became an important ecumenical missional strategy to profile the numerous incidences of violent conflicts that have engulfed many societies of the world, in order for the ecumenical movement to be in active solidarity with victims of violence and to challenge structures and actions that perpetuate violence. The DOV was finally adopted by the WCC Central Committee at its meeting in Geneva between 28th August and 3rd September 1999 as a follow up action to the 1998 WCC eighth assembly in Harare, Zimbabwe (WCC 1999:186). During the committee meeting, a statement was issued that contained the following perspective on peace and reconciliation as earlier mentioned. However, it will be appropriate to state the profound readiness demonstrated by the ecumenical movement to ensure that its voice is heard loudly on efforts galvanized towards overcoming violence and entrenching a culture of nonviolence. The statement highlights the call that: “We must give up being spectators of violence or merely lamenting it and must act to overcome violence both within and outside the walls of the church” (WCC 1999:187). The ecumenical movement urged its member churches not to be just spectators in challenging and confronting the popular culture of violence towards advocating in strong terms the inculcation of a culture that compels people and communities to tow the path of decency in resolving troubling issues capable of brewing animosity that may lead to violent reaction. Undoubtedly, the commitment expressed by the ecumenical movement to nonviolence principles as a potent instrument in conflict resolution and building life affirming relations between and amongst the people existing in a particular social location. Such commitment by the ecumenical movement has continued to endear it to many international and multilateral governmental and nongovernmental organizations that have also exhibited commitment to the cause of peace and peaceful coexistence between people and institutions for human and environmental wellbeing.
The “Decade to Overcome Violence” ended with documented publication titled “Overcoming Violence: The Ecumenical Decade 2001 – 2010” that provides an elaborate overview of international actions and projects carried during the decade. Fernando Enns wrote in the introductory pages of the aforementioned document that:
This Decade may have come to an end, but for us it is just a start: on the grounds of all that gathered experience and knowledge, we are called to develop a coherent ecumenical theology of peace with justice and care for creation. On that fresh commitment of the churches within the ecumenical community would prove that the DOV was not about some activism of yet another, but a confessing family of churches who truly believe against all evil in the power of overcoming evil by doing good (WCC 2011:9).
The foregoing statement expresses obvious realization on the part of the ecumenical movement to harness the gains of the Decade to Overcome Violence to strategize for greater and deeper engagement of issues that make for justice and peace to abound in human society and the environment. Recognizing the risk of ecumenical programmes to become opportunities for talk shops and not platforms for designing concrete actions to combat forces of injustice and transform unjust structures and systems. Kirk reinforces the idea that identifying the challenges faced by people should compel human institutions to address them appropriately in order to ensure social stability and cohesion, he argues: “violence can only be terminated once the justice of people’s grievances has been recognized and addressed” (Kirk 1999:143). He further emphasized that: “unless peace is built upon the righting of social and economic wrongs, it is quite simply an illusion” (Kirk 1999:143). His assertion can be seen as an invitation to go beyond public declaration of intention to overcome violence within a set period. It calls for deliberate strategic frameworks to be put in place to challenge unjust structures that triggers violence. However, Huber offers an alternative perspective. He postulates that:
...taming violence occurs primarily by educating people to behave non-violently and by making the law supreme. Among the means of control that the state uses is the use of police precautionary measures against acts of violence and military securing of peace…these violent government measures must be tied firmly to the duty to prevent violence and to decrease it (Huber 1996:131).
Huber’s argument seems to be contradictory. He argues that violence can only be restrained by deliberately placing responsibility and authority to stop or decrease violence in the law that empowers the military and/or police to enforce the said law (Huber 1996:131). Apparently, the expression of violence by people can be associated to the notion of how societies are organised, and whether the citizens are actively involved in shaping the system that delivers justice. It may be presumed that where sense of ownership and confidence in systems that are expected to adjudicate and dispense justice are lacking, the possibility of abuse of privileged power by those in positions of state authority is high. A female theologian, who has been involved with theologizing the notion of justice and peace with the premise of overcoming violence, Esther Mombo, she asserts that, the DOV offered the church the opportunity to commit itself to advocating for nonviolence approaches in all manners of disputes and also to stand unwaveringly on the cause of justice (2011:71). She asserts further that:
The DOV’s aim was to call the churches and all people of goodwill to commit themselves to a journey of peace. This was an appeal to work for the empowerment of those oppressed by violence and to act in solidarity with those struggling for justice, peace and the integrity of creation. The DOV urged people to repent of their complicity in violence and to engage in reflection to overcome the spirit, logic and practice of violence (2011:71).
The DOV as a programme recognized that member churches of the WCC had a strategic role to play in finding practical solutions in addressing the global phenomenon of violence. It has been widely said that some of the churches have become complacent and complicit in violent conflicts within their local contexts and beyond. Whereas, churches in Nigeria such as the Roman Catholic Church, Church of the Brethren and Church of Christ in Nations became victims of violence because of their solidarity with victims that lived on the margins (Falola 2009, Nguvugher 2010, Kaigama 2012). Moreover, some interest groups that are politically and economically privileged used such privileges to persecute the churches that take such prophetic stand in identifying perpetrators of violence (Christian Association of Nigeria 2010). Their diverse experiences have taught that any serious commitment to overcoming violence will be a costly endeavour and may result in devastating consequences.
However, in the midst all the quackmire, Gandhi offers a global admonition on the need to embrace quite fully and openly the principles of nonviolence. He states that:
...nonviolence is the greatest force humanity has been endowed with. Truth is the only goal we have. For God is none other than Truth. But Truth cannot be, never will be reached except through nonviolence. That which distinguishes us from other animals is our capacity to be nonviolent. And we fulfil our mission only to the extent that we are nonviolent and no more (quoted by Wink 2000:2).
The admonition sounds profound and compelling for all to embrace of nonviolent ideals as the credible for life enhancing way of resolving conflicting issues. Especially issues with the propensity to cause violent reactions, the nonviolent principles should be implored mitigate on such issues. The quote urges for deliberate effort be made towards entrenching a culture of nonviolence in all kinds of human society. The argument that embracing a nonviolence approach in resolving conflict issues will lead to both parties involved appreciating the outcome without feeling short-changed can be debated. The presumption that all the parties in the conflict will be satisfied with the outcome of conflict resolution may be problematic. The use of the term
“truth” by Ghandi can also be problematic. The puzzle will be what is the truth in such conflict circumstance? It may be more viable to emphasis the notion of the common or greater good for all the parties involved in a conflict. The focus should be more on what will serve the interest of all while embracing the philosophy of nonviolence in mitigating conflict issue.
1.9 Structure of the Dissertation
The dissertation is made up of seven (7) chapters and each chapter is sequentially connected to the next on the basis of the ideological grounding rooted in the desire to present a wellresearched work on the notion of Just Peace as essentially capable to catalyse actions towards overcoming violence in any multi-religious and multicultural society, but specifically in Jos, Nigeria. The chapters are briefly described in sequential order as given below:
Chapter one provides a general introduction to the entire dissertation. The chapter gives the research background, research motivation and rationale, context of the research, research problem, research questions, research objectives, research methodology and design, systematic literature review, scope and limitation, and brief description of the structure of the dissertation. The chapter therefore presents an academic quick snapshot of the whole dissertation.
Chapter two focuses on providing insights to the missiological tool utilized to critique the Just Peace concept and also provided broad explanation on the three main theoretical frameworks employed in the research. The theories include; one, ‘for a culture of life: reconsidering peace and justice’ advanced by the former General Secretary of WCC, Rev Dr Konrad Raiser, two, ‘a covenantal model: promoting peace among the Abrahamic traditions’ propagated by William T. Dickens, Professor and Chair, Religious Studies and Department Director, Franciscan Center for Catholic Studies Siena College, and the last theory is ‘Ubuntu: an African concept of communitarianism’, a concept that emerged for an African culture apostle by many PanAfricanists. The chapter provides elaborate perspectives on the theories and their relevance to the research with clear indication on their intersection and convergences as independent but interdependent theories in this research endeavour.
Chapter three primarily focuses on the background to the situation of non-peace in Jos. Within the chapter, issues relating to religious plurality of Jos, religious fundamentalism and all that it entails are presented. The chapter also provided some of the conflict triggers in the area. The possible causes of the violent conflicts in Jos are outlined and discussed with the hope that, it will lead to the factors to be demystified and unbundled for a genuine culture of peace underpinned by justice to be entrenched.
Chapter four presents an architectural overview of the World Council of Churches, its nature, its historical engagement on matters of justice and peace, some major landmark initiatives for a just world and other critical programme interventions established and implemented by the ecumenical movement. Some of the initiatives and programmes are well discussed in the chapter in order to provide helpful information on the efforts being made by WCC towards the realization of the desired goal of a just and inclusive human society.
Chapter five focuses on the whole concept of Just Peace with the craving for a just and peaceful society as the undergirding desire in the whole research discourse. It gives brief overview on the just war theory not on the basis that the research is a paradigmatic study on a shift from the theory to the just peace concept, but for the purpose of providing a little insight in the theory and to showcase the glaring departure between the two theories. The chapter also presents multidimensional approaches to the understanding of the notion of Just Peace including linguistic definition of the term.
Chapter six provides a succinct, but precise outline of milestone initiatives taken by local organisations in Jos towards overcoming violence, building genuine peace and advocating for authentic justice at the global and local levels, with attention paid on initiatives that practically demonstrate WCC’s solidarity with the people of Jos and efforts being made by Jos residents to prevent violent conflicts from occurring and entrenching a culture of durable peace.
The last chapter, which is the eighth, presents the concluding part of the entire research work. The chapter which chronicles on the emerging issues that contributes to the body of knowledge on the subject of Just Peace as a culture and its desirability for overcoming violence in social locations that are prone to violence. In the chapter, the researcher shares his thoughts on some discoveries during the course of the research, which may provoke further researches and stimulate concrete actions for cause of justice and peace.
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A MISSIOLOGICAL CRITIQUE OF THE WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES’ NOTION OF JUST PEACE
A MISSIOLOGICAL CRITIQUE OF THE WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES’ NOTION OF JUST PEACE: ITS IMPLICATION AND CONTEXTUAL RELEVANCE FOR OVERCOMING VIOLENCE AND PEACEBUILDING IN THE MULTI-RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY OF JOS, NIGERIA”
Abstract
The study employed missiological lenses to critique the emerging ecumenical notion of Just Peace as an ideological concept, and also examined its contextual relevance and ecumenical implications as potent theory for overcoming violence and fostering sustainable peace in a multireligious and multicultural Nigerian Society. The Just Peace concept and process was adopted by the WCC at the International Ecumenical Peace Convocation that was held in Kingston Jamaica in May 2011 as a global ecumenical pedagogical approach for equipping and empowering churches in their missional engagements to overcome violence and build peace in human society. The objective of the research was mainly to critique the Just Peace concept through investigating the extent to which churches in Jos, Nigeria have understood and appropriated the concept in their process of responding to the conflict in their communities.
In cognisance of the global challenge in the quest for justice and peace, Just Peace, ecumenical concept of WCC was examined in order to determine its contextual relevance towards building a just and peaceful multi-religious and multicultural context of Jos, Nigeria. In doing justice to the foregoing, the research embraced three ideological theories which formed the theoretical framework upon which the research project was constructed. Konrad Raiser a German global ecumenist and former General Secretary of the WCC offers a missio-ecumenical framework that focuses on ‘a Culture of Life: Reconsidering Peace and Justice’ and William Tom Dickens, a professor of Religious Studies with special interest in inter-religious dialogue offering a covenantal framework that promotes peace among people of faith that embraces the Abrahamic tradition. To reinforce the two euro-centric theories, a third theory emerging from African context was employed, ‘Ubuntu’.
In a nutshell, the Culture of Just Peace canvassed in this research compels people of all faith traditions to deliberately perceive and discern rightly that justice and peace are free and priceless gifts of the Almighty God and must not be commoditized or politically transacted in any way or in any form. The Culture compels Christians and Muslims and indeed all people of faiths to question the authenticity and validity all religious teachings suspected to be perverted and divisive that have the propensity to instigate disregard and disrespect for the religious “other”, with the sole aim of building a peaceful and religiously cohesive society for all, and in consistent with the fundamental principles and philosophies of the various religions embedded in the sanctity of human life. Being religious cohesion does not in any way negate the principles of diversity but invites people of different religious affiliation to perceive and recognise that other religions other than theirs affirms life.
CHAPTER ONE
General Introduction
Peace is not just the absence of war. Peace cannot be built on foundations of injustice. Peace requires a new international order on justice and respect for the God-given humanity and dignity of every person Konrad Raiser (2002:79).
1.1 Introduction
This study seeks to critique the emerging ecumenical paradigm of Just Peace, and examine its contextual relevance and ecumenical implications for overcoming violence and fostering durable peace in the multi-religious and multi-cultural community of Jos, Nigeria. The Jos context of the research is plagued with intractable violent conflicts claimed to be fuelled by socio-political and religio-cultural factors (Best 2007:7). The Just Peace concept and process was adopted by the World Council of Churches (WCC) during the International Ecumenical Peace Convocation (IEPC) that was held in Kingston, Jamaica in 2011. It was adopted as a global ecumenical pedagogy to equip, empower and stimulate churches in their missional quest and engagements towards overcoming all logics and manifestation of violence and seek ways to promote sustainable peace in a fragmented world. Some churches in the city of Jos are members of WCC such as Church of Nigeria Anglican Communion, Presbyterian Church of Nigeria (PCN), Methodist Church Nigeria (MCN), Church of the Brethren in Nigeria (CBN), Nigeria Baptist Convention (NBC), Reformed Church of Christ in Nigeria (RCCN) and The African Church. The Christian Council of Nigeria commonly referred to as “CCN” is an affiliate body to the WCC and being a Nigeria-based ecumenical organization, it has members who do not subscribe to the vision and mission of WCC. While many of these church denominations that are members of CCN are not members of WCC, but in actual sense benefit immensely from WCC’s programmes because of their proxy membership via CCN.
Meanwhile, according to the record of attendance at the IEPC, four (4) among the WCC member churches in Nigeria participated in this ecumenical event. The convocation broadly deliberated and put forward proactive suggestions on how churches can visibly contribute more concretely in the efforts towards overcoming structural violence. The convocation also called the churches to intentionally work for the realization of the ecumenical notion of Just Peace (Chunakara 2013:236-266). According to the records, the churches that participated in the International
Ecumenical Peace Convocation from Nigeria included; Church of Nigeria Anglican Communion,
Presbyterian Church of Nigeria, Methodist Church Nigeria and Church of the Lord (Aladura) Worldwide (Chunakara 2013:236-266). The participants from these churches were official delegates from the national domain of their respective church denominations. Unfortunately, none of the delegates was from Jos. Even though, it may be speculated that the delegates on their return provided feedbacks to the leadership of their churches and same feedbacks transmitted to all units and branches of the churches. However, it was for this reason that one of the core objectives of this research will in the first instance critique the Just Peace concept and process and then proceed to assess the extent to which selective churches in Jos have understood and appropriated the concept and process within their conflict endemic community.
This undoubtedly provided the nexus between the research topic and research focus as can be seen in the subsequent sections and chapters.
1.2 Context of the research
1.2.1 Historical Overview of Jos, Plateau State
Jos is the capital city of Plateau State that is situated in the central belt of Nigeria (Nigeria 2007). Over the years, Jos has grown to become one of Nigeria’s premier tourists centre and the sixth largest producer of tin. It is populated by diverse tribes that include the Berom, Anaguta and Afizere (Bingel 1978:2). However, traders, butchers, Koranic teachers and other artisans also came to settle due to the commercial significance of Jos. All of the major ethnic groups have settled in Jos. This situation may have contributed to the socio-political and religious tensions experienced within the city. In recent years it has suffered violent religious clashes between its Muslim and Christian population in 2001, 2008, 2010, and 2011
Jos has been chosen as the social context for this study because of its socio-cultural and religious diversity and most importantly, the crisis situation that has robbed the city of its slogan ‘home of peace and tourism’. Neiers describes Jos, thus: “Jos is a cosmopolitan meeting place where the members of the various tribes represented tend to regroup themselves and live together in urban villages, in the midst of immigrants from every region in Nigeria and of a quite large nonAfrican population” (1979:132). The submission by Neiers presents the cosmopolitan nature of Jos as a city that has provided a home for Christians, Muslims and traditional worshippers for over a century. The adherents of the different religious faiths have coexisted for many years in Jos with extremely less visible tension. They have shared political and cultural spaces and formed alliances across board. Apparently, the story is changing or may be it has changed in the recent past that the social, political, religious and cultural varieties and diversity instead of enriching relationships and interaction between and among residents have resulted in tension, suspicion and stereotype and worst of all a deteriorating mutual relations between adherents of the two dominant religions that has led to perennial violence being experienced (Nguvugher 2010:155). The impact of such violent attacks has remained enormous and devastating with many human lives being killed, others maimed, properties destroyed and relationships adversely affected (Best 2006; 2007; & Nguvugher 2010).
Unfortunately, despite the opportunities and blessings that come with diversity, the growing religious intolerance, tension and mutual suspicion among residents of Jos have cast a bleak shadow on the social construct and outlook of the city. It is paradoxical that the city advertised itself as ‘Home of Peace and Tourism’ but the people have renamed it as ‘home of pieces and terrorism’, the peace that has been enjoyed in Jos has in the recent past been jeopardized due to the intermittent violence being experienced (Nguvugher 2010:147). This understanding and perspectives shared by the people on the contradiction noticeable in the foregoing contestation of the slogan of Jos on whether it is a home of peace or otherwise resonates with assertion put forward by Best, wherein he argues that: “Jos,… previously known for its peace and tranquillity, joined the growing list of locations with violent conflicts from the early nineties, with the biggest crisis occurring in 2001” (Best 2007:3).
1.2.2 Socio-Cultural Outlook of Jos
Jos happens to be the capital city Plateau State located in the middle belt region of Nigeria with good climatic weather that may have contributed in attacking many people of diverse backgrounds settling there. Furthermore, the State has over 30 ethnic groups each with a proud cultural heritage with no single group large enough to claim majority position. The people are generally hospitable and accommodating and have similar cultural and traditional ways of life. People from other parts of the country coexist peacefully with the indigenes. Some of the tribes in the State among others are Berom, Ngas, Taroh, Goemai, Youm, Montol, Rukuba, Kwagalak, Piapung, Buji, Irigwe, Mushere, Jarawa, Anaguta, Gashish, Pyem, Amo, Chip, Meryang, Fier, Bogghom, Mwaghavul, Ron-Kulere, and Aten (Nguvugher 2010; Best 2007; Bingel 1978). The people of the State are predominantly farmers but with very rich and diverse cultural heritage which they uphold religiously, resulting in the many festivals which provide entertainment to the people and visitors all the year round and also act as veritable tools of unity and progress for the various ethnic groups. Interestingly, all these ethnic groups scattered around the State have profound presence in Jos.
There are other tribes that came to settle in the State as a result of historical events. These include the Hausa, Fulani, Igbo, Yoruba, Ijaw, Bini etc. This is a State where unity is seen very much compatible with diversity. Plateau State, because of its numerous ethnic groups provides some of the dominant cultural traits of the Nation's rich cultural heritage. The cultural treasures and artefacts of the State occupy significant places of honour in galleries through the nation and beyond. Our dances and our songs have won distinction at international festivals (Nguvugher 2010; Best 2007; Bingel 1978).
1.2.3 The Prevalence of Violence in Jos
Nigeria as a nation state has over the years not too long after its independence experienced numerous political, economic, religious and ethnic motivated violent clashes; the worst of it was the civil war that had monumental impact in the country (Uwechue 1971:19). Unfortunately, some parts of the country, Jos included, the violent clashes or attacks have continued unabated. Noticeably, since the year 2009, the Islamic extremist group, “Boko Haram” which if translated from Hausa language to English language means; “Western Education is forbidden” (Umaru 2013:77). The militant extremist group has continued to unleashed terror on innocent citizens that oppose their perverted religious ideology. The group’s terror attacks have been mostly in three (3) major cities in the North-East geopolitical region of Nigeria with thousands of people maimed, killed and forcefully displaced (ICC 2013:6). Its indiscriminate use of Improvised Explosive Devices (IED) that have targeted churches, mosques, government installations and educational institutions in Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Kaduna, Kano, Plateau, Taraba, and Yobe states (Nigeria C&S Report 2013). In spite of the government action taken to put an end to such violence, through the use of state of emergency declared on 14th of May 2013 in three north-eastern States of Adamawa, Borno and Yobe that allows the security forces legal protection to fight the perpetrators, the situation has worsen each year (Krause 2011:38). Even though the three States are not part of the research context in a narrow sense but in different ways what happens in those States has implication on the wellbeing of Jos being a microcosm of Nigeria. It may be necessary to state that, Jos had its own experience of draconian authoritarian imposition of a full fledge State of emergency on 18th November 2004 due to protracted violent attacks in some parts of Plateau State with Jos as its capital city (Best 2007:249).
Consequently, the deteriorating socio-economic and political situation since the dawn of the current democratic dispensation that began on 29th May 1999 has resulted in further communal clashes that took religious outlook that have increased tension and suspicion between Muslims and Christians in Plateau States, and Jos in particular. The quest for sustainable peace and holistic justice in Jos constitutes an urgent need that has proven to be very elusive. The violent attacks in this city have taken a tragic dimension where women, children and the elderly have not been spared from the onslaughts of crime and violence that have engulfed the area (Krause
2011:43). Reinforcing the foregoing assertion, the document on ‘Curbing Violence in Nigeria (I): The Jos Crisis, Africa Report N°196 – 17 December 2012, reported that; “2011 was a particularly bloody year. Hundreds were killed during the first six months. Between 15 August and 12 September, over 150 lost their lives, with 50 in a week. These included pregnant women, children and an entire family. Ambe-Uva has argued that Jos’ reputation: “seems to be a thing of the past as the peace of the State has recently been questioned following the spate violent conflicts that erupted between different communities that had hitherto lived in peace and harmony with one another” (2011:58). The religious crisis within Jos suggests that the followers of Christianity and Islam need to change course from their confrontational non-life giving discourse and cross boundaries to rediscover common ground that facilitates the peace and justice tenet of their faiths to build wholesome communities. It is this protracted problem that provides the base for the research topic and focus.
1.2.4 Highlights of incidences of violent conflicts in Jos
As mentioned quite sparsely in some of the sections above Jos and its environs a decade running up to the second millennium has continued to experienced internecine violent clashes. Violence with different motivations occurred in Jos and environs that have been chronicled by different researchers and government reports. In 1990, there was a fierce confrontation that erupted between Christian & Muslim students as result of some administrative changes within the institution. In 1994, a crisis was triggered when a non indigene Muslim was appointed as Sole Administrator of Jos Local Government Area by the then Military Administrator of Plateau State, who was a Muslim. In 1996 a violent clash between Muslims and Christians occurred near the Central Mosque of Jos city. It was as a result of a tension that had built up over the death of a Christian youth, who raised an alarm during election on some irregularities and malpractices that were going on during the electioneering process in one of the large electoral ward. In the year 1997, a violent protest occurred because “a non-indigene Muslim” was appointed a Sole Administrator of Jos Local Government Area.
Similarly, in the same year of 1997, there was a report of another violent attack. The fierce battle that ensued between cattle herdsmen and the local farmers in one of surrounding communities of Jos. 1999 saw a resurgence of violent clashes between cattle herdsmen and the local farmers. Jos city and its environs in 2001 experienced monumental devastating violence that came with huge casualty. There was another bloody confrontation between cattle herdsmen and the local farmers in one of the suburbs. Still within the year, there was a protest by the indigenous tribes on the appointment of a so-called settler to coordinate the activities of the government agency responsible for poverty alleviation programme that turned catastrophic. Later in the year due to the fragility and volatility of Jos, many residents have become quite impatient with each that at the slightest provocation leads to violent confrontation that was led to the violence that took place in a marketplace in the city. In 2002 in one of the surrounding communities there was a violent clash between Fulani who are known as cattle herdsmen and mostly Muslim with the Beroms are known as farmers and mostly Christians. In same year there was a post-election violent that erupted, which supposedly was triggered so-called indigenes discovered that a socalled non-indigene Muslim Hausa person was leading in the primary election that will produce a councillorship ruling part flag-bearer (Plateau State Government 1994, Baldauf, 2010, Blench et al 2010, Nguvugher 2010, Ashafa & Wuyep 2011).
Furthermore, Jos in the year 2004 experienced two catastrophic violence that engulfed several parts of the State leading to the declaration of State of Emergency by the Federal Government and the second one was localized to Jos city which took tragic dimension due to the religious connotation linked to the crisis that took place in a distant region of Plateau State. In the year 2008, there was another fierce conflict which unfortunately was labelled a religious conflict because it involved Christians and Muslims over the result of local government elections that took place on November 28 and 29 in Jos. Most sadly, the two days of confrontation left over 400 injured and 381 killed. 2010 was another year that Jos and its environs experienced another most devastating attack that turned down the city with huge casualty. It was an altercation that ensued between a Christian and Muslim traders degenerated into fierce confrontation. That same year in one of the surrounding towns, Dogon Nahawa to be specific was invaded and attacked by unknown gunmen. The incidence was considered as one of the gruesome violence experienced in the area, with over five hundred (500) women and children killed, who were all Christians. It was alleged that the attackers were Hausa-Fulani herdsmen which points to the insinuation that the attackers were Muslims by common religious clustering of ethnic groups in Nigeria. In December 2010, the conflict situation in Jos gave a new twist to the whole episode of violent conflict in Jos and its environs. The use of improvised explosive devices and suicide killing were introduced. The Christmas period of the same year saw sporadic suicide bombing targeted at different Christian worship centres with many lives lost and churches burnt. 2011 also saw numerous attacks on the surrounding suburbs of Jos by some unknown people. Many people killed and properties destroyed. In January of 2011, there were almost daily clashes between Christian and Muslim mobs in villages around Jos since the series of bombs had been detonated during Christmas Eve celebrations of 2010 a month earlier (Plateau State Government 1994, Baldauf, 2010, Blench et al 2010, Nguvugher 2010, Ashafa & Wuyep 2011).
Apparently, since 2010 to this day, reports of violent attacks on surrounding suburbs of Jos have become recurring decimals. Both local and international media agencies have literally reported on weekly basis of some form of violent situations with people killed, homes burnt down and sources of livelihood destroyed. The perceived factors that cause such violent situations leading to lack of peace in Jos and environs will be discussed in chapter three.
1.3 Motivation/Rationale for this Research
The motivation to undertake this research is anchored on the researcher’s experiential knowledge of violent conflicts and its devastating impact on the people in Jos and its environs. The intractability of violence in conflict ridden region denies people the experience of social and economic wellbeing because of the plethora of upheaval leading to loss of not only human lives but properties and sources of livelihood. These have been the experiences of many of the residents of the context of this research. In addition, the researcher’s involvement with various ecumenical organisations locally, regionally and internationally shaped his ecumenical identity and vocation to undertake this research in a broad ecumenical sense. Most particularly, the researcher’s involvement with some of the World Council of Churches’ ecumenical programmes stimulated the desire to carry out an in-depth academic exploration of the ecumenical implication and contextual relevance of the Just Peace concept and process in a multi-faith and multicultural context of Jos, Nigeria in overcoming violence and promote a culture of peace.
Furthermore, the context of the research calls for in depth interrogation of the entrenched and systemic threats to just and peaceful co-existence among the people of diverse religious and political persuasions and affiliations. It is postulated in this thesis that churches that will be best equipped to make profound impact in the quest for sustainable and Just Peace in the multireligious and multi-cultural environment of Jos are those that would embrace a progressive ecumenism that possesses the force to stir in adherents and by extension residents of Jos and environs to embrace nonviolent lifestyle, with the hope that the lifestyle will be lived out in resolving any sort of dispute or disagreement in the community and contribute meaningfully towards community wellbeing and nation building. The researcher motivated by the existential reality of unwarranted tensions and manifestation of violent conflicts in Jos and its environs, it hoped that the people of Jos will embrace and express a culture that upholds religious and cultural plurality that makes and gives room for mutual respect as a viable support system within the community that cherishes and nourishes diversity and plurality of any kind that affirms life.
1.3.1 Research Gap
The quest for sustainable peace and holistic justice in today’s world and Jos to be specific is most urgent now than ever before. Therefore, the task towards realizing the quest has to be a collective responsibility of all peoples of goodwill, regardless of their social status and religious affiliation. Noticeably, most international and local media agencies both print and electronic such like Cable News Network (CNN), British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Aljazeera Media Network, Channels Television Nigeria, African Independent Television (AIT) Nigeria and others report on regular basis all kinds of violent conflicts and senseless attacks on people in different nations of the world. Such violent attacks have led to huge human casualties with many maimed, killed and valuable resources destroyed. Violence has become pandemic and contagious, and no country seems to be immune. By being contagious, it is justified on the grounds of incidences of importation and exportation of violent conflicts due to negative socio-political and religious solidarity, the case of Danish cartoon saga in the year 2005 that was greeted with violent attacks on innocent residents in some northern states of Nigeria, most particularly, Kano, Bauchi and Borno States in February 2006 (Gamji News 2006). To further complicate the situation, religion that should be life-affirming has been manipulated in many contexts to serve political agenda, thereby resulting in violent conflicts or insurrections such as the actions of Boko Haram in Nigeria since 2009 (Krause 2011:38). The manipulation of religion has resulted in fierce confrontation among the people leading to massive destruction of lives and properties on the basis of negative solidarity (Best 2007:44). The pressing need is not merely for any kind of peace but Just Peace. The peace that embodies deeper qualitative content that takes seriously issues of holistic justice.
It is therefore within this global challenge most probable and the profound quest for a just and inclusive society within diverse political contexts that the WCC sought to motivate its member churches, especially in those contexts where systemic violence has overwhelmed the lives of ordinary people, make the quest for Just Peace in their respective nations a missional priority and vocation. This study therefore seeks to examine the relevance of this ecumenical concept and the process that is advocated for the building of just and sustainable peace in a a multi-religious and multicultural environment in Jos, Nigeria. Before critiquing the Just Peace concept, a brief overview of the World Council of Churches will be presented in the next section in order to locate how the idea of the Just Peace concept has emerged within its life and work.
1.3.2 Ecumenical as a locution in this research
The term “ecumenical” is used in this study to embrace the entire inhabited earth,, cutting across religious and cultural identity and boundaries. Konrad Raiser, a German theologian and ecumenicist and former General Secretary of the the WCC,, traces the etymological understanding of the term "ecumenical," which can also take the ideological form "ecumenism..”. He began by linking it swiftly to the Greek transliteration of the term “Oikoumene” as being the pivot of the word.
He further states that “Oikoumene is a relational, dynamic concept that extends beyond the fellowship of Christians and churches to the human community within the whole of creation” (cited in Lossky et al., 2002:841). The description,, as advanced by Raiser,, safely makes clear that the term embodies the notion that the universal space or environment was created to provide habitation for the entire creation, including including humankind, animals, plants,, and all others. The description negates all manner of fragmentation, delineation,, and classification within the inhabited universe. Corroborating the ideal of humanity dwelling together mutually in the inhabited earth, Oduyoye argues that “it makes sense for those who believe that they belong to a common ancestor to meet together and attempt to talk with one voice and work for their mutual good, demonstrating their common identity and acting towardss their common goal” (Chilcote 2008:328). This understanding goes beyond the narrow use of the concept of “ecumenical” or “ecumenism” to refer to organisations that create spaces for different denominations and Christian organisations to cooperate towards a common objective with extensive all-embracing hunch that compels inclusivity in human relations with all regardless of creed, faith, cultural affinity, political persuasions and social associations, and the environment as well. It is against the foregoing assertions that this research embraces the wider use of the term to include people of other faiths as both participants and beneficiaries of both the intended and unintended outcomes of the research. This opinion is further premised on the understanding that,, within the context of Jos, the religion of Islam and its Muslim followers are conspicuously visible and considered strategic partners in the ecumenical quest for just peace.
1.4 Research Questions and Objectives
1.4.1 The Research Problem
Unfortunately, with the violent conflicts continuing unabated with huge collateral damages incurred, it will be wrong to argue that the slogan of the city of Jos, the capital of Plateau State,, should change from “Home of Peace and Tourism” to something different. Time alone will tell whether the slogan will have to change for the better or worse. Meanwhile, it is not the intention of the researcher to investigate the relevance of the slogan and the current trends that seem to question the veracity of the statement (Best 2007, Krause 2010, Nguvugher 2010).
Meanwhile, the study intends to explore and probe what is the nature of “Peace” that is “Just” that can be embraced as a “culture”, that has the propensity to transform the culture of violence that has engulfed Jos and its environs to be a more peaceful environment, thereby regain its pride of place and adorned as “Home of Peace and Tourism” in the entire nation of Nigeria (Best 2007, Krause 2010, Nguvugher 2010).
1.4.2 Hypothesis and Key Research Question
The research is hinged on the assumption that the human society, the environment included, aspires for a culture that will guarantee fullest of life characterized by holistic wellbeing. It should be a culture that will be embraced by all people regardless of their religious persuasion, ethnic identity, social class or political affiliation. A culture grounded in life affirming morality and ethics. Violence cannot be the culture that is being aspired for, because violence brings with it pain, sorrows and human sufferings. In order to suggest a culture to the people of Jos and environs who have continued to face different magnitude of violence in recent times, the research sought to provide answers to the primary question: what is the relevance of WCC concept of Just Peace and how can it be engaged and contextualized to assist churches and nonchurch actors in overcoming violence and peace-building within multi-religious and multicultural community of Jos?
To further guide the research in providing relevant responses to the research hypothesis, the following objectives were engaged and explored: first, the study utilized missiological approach to engage with the concept of Just Peace within the context of conflict violence in Jos, Nigeria. Second, it examined how the concept of justice has evolved within WCC’s concern for global peace. Third, it engaged the development of the concept of Just Peace within WCC. Fourth, it investigated the underlying socio-economic, political and religious factors that contribute to violent conflicts within Jos, Nigeria. Fourth, it demonstrated how the concept of Just Peace can assist WCC member churches in Jos in their effort to overcome violence and peace building. Finally, it identified some signposts of Just Peace emerging from the local context that may suggest alternative ways of overcoming violence and building peace.
1.5 Research Design
This segment of the chapter presents the architecture of the study and how it will be accomplished in a succinct manner. Like Kevin Durrheim has argued: “a research design is a strategic framework for action that serves as a bridge between research questions and the execution or implementation of the research” (Blanche 2006:34). The importance of having a clearly mapped out research design cannot be overly stressed because it is most cardinal to the success of the research as accentuated by Durrheim and other psychologist and social anthropologists. Durrheim went further to stress that: “research designs are plans that guide the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure” (Blanche 2006:34). Reinforcing the view on the significance of research design, Mouton and Marais affirmed that research design; “helps to plan and structure a given research project for it to achieve maximum results” (cited in Durrheim 2010: 37). Highlighting further the momentous role of research design in academic study, Durrheim emphasised that: “design coherence and validity are the ingredients for maximizing research findings” (2010:37). While Holloway opines that: “research design should limit its relevance and function at the proposal development stage” (1997:137). Whereas, Durrheim, on the other hand astutely upheld that: “research design is the blueprint of the entire study process” (2010:39). That is to say, it goes beyond the proposal stage as suggested by Holloway because it serves as the research architectural framework.
Giving impetus to the view that research design permeates the entire ramification of the research work, Mouton and Marais vehemently upheld that: “research design is significant to the whole research framework. It transcends the proposal level, thereby shaping the entire research study” (Durrheim 2010: 37). Hence, the research is structured in such a fashion that each step builds up to the other to the very last aspect of the research work. But essentially, research design embodies and exposes the whole research architecture, which includes, and not limited to; empirical method, purpose of the study, context of the study, theoretical paradigm, and research techniques employed to collect and analyse data. Therefore, research design if well laid out from the onset guides the entire research process to its logical conclusion with less stress and extremely minimal digression, when it becomes necessary, but not to the disadvantage of the research. As can be inferred from the various perspectives shared by the scholars quoted earlier, research design gives the study a sense of coherence and consistency to the last word and ensures that research guidelines are adhered to while undertaking an academic research.
1.5.1 Methodology and Methods
The study is a qualitative non-empirical research, which seeks to utilise information written documents as primary sources and some shared information by the selected key participants on some specific gaps that were not found in the written sources as the concept of just-peace is in its infancy and not much is yet written on how it can function in an multi-religious and multicultural context such as Jos. The researcher interacts with identified participants through the mechanism of experienced and practitioner informants’ discussion only. The individuals opted to be anonymous as their voices were less critical in overall outcome of the research, since the research is non-empirical. There was no formal interview arrangement with informants, but were engaged through unstructured informal discussions (interviews) in the conferences, workshops and seminars by the researcher asking them specific questions that were never brought to explicit discussion. Kochar (1985) identifies that informal discussions as methodology are governed by pre-determined set of rules and it includes debates, panels, symposia etc. These interviews were informal and were not controlled by a specific set of detailed questions. The interviewer was guided by a pre-defined list of issues on the concept of just-peace within Jos context. The informality of these discussions/interviews meant that the interviewer was not concerned with sampling because its aim was to find out what key players are thinking and reacting to the notion of just-peace (Crawford 1997).
By employing the methodological approach of qualitative non-empirical research to this research is appropriate and fits in neatly with literature review’ method applied in this research. Creswell reinforces the view that supports strongly the notion of qualitative inquiry as the methodology of choice when dealing with topic of this nature, wherein he says: “…not much has been written about the topic or the population being studied, and the researcher seeks to listen to participants and build an understanding based on their ideas” (2003: 30). Even though, Creswell’s view may seem to suggest extensive involvement of human participants in the kind of qualitative research he is advocating for, however, the aspect of his view that is most relevant to this work is where he raised the issue of filling the gap on the limited work done on the subject.
This resonates properly with the subject of Just Peace, which is the paramount focus of this research. Noticeably, the subject of Just Peace has not been substantially researched academically from ecumenical and missiological perspectives within Jos context, especially as a trajectory parallel to the notion of Just War, which is the intention of this research. Perhaps, it is right to state that immeasurable quantum of work has been done on the theme of justice and peace or vice versa.
Expatiating further on the relevance of applying qualitative method in this research work, it allows for new theological and sociological nuances that will certainly aid the researcher to go beyond initial preconceptions and frameworks, as against quantitative study which replaces informants’ expressions with figures. Evidently, that may have accounted for Smith’s affirmation that: “qualitative study helps one present the explanation of the process occurring in local contexts…chronological flow, assess local causality, and derive fruitful explanation” (1984: 15). But, Henning emphasizes the use of evidence from data collected and from the literature on the phenomenon being studied within the purview of qualitative research (2004:3). The aspect of drawing from repository of literatures that have engaged the various issues of immense concern to this research remains paramount as asserted by Henning. This understanding accounted for the utilization of the in-depth literature review approach in this research.
Apart from published literature in the libraries in South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria and Switzerland and online resources, the archival sources were consulted at WCC Archives in Geneva in order to get historic points on ecumenical conversations that led to the emergence of the “Just Peace” concept. Because the intention was to dig deeper towards trying to understand a tradition that may have been embraced by the ecumenical movement of declaring a period to affirm and express its commitment to global and continental causes. Attention given paid on extracting relevant minutes and other policy documents of the Council, particularly, resolutions reached on issues relating to Just Peace and overcoming violence that may have not been shelved in the relevant libraries of the ecumenical movement.
1.5.2 Methodological Progression
The research questions and the undergirding research objectives help determine research precisions and guides literature search processes. As earlier mentioned that the whole notion of systematic literature review compels the intellectual attitude of being vivid and rigour in literature engagement as asserted by Arksey and O’Malley that: “as possible in identifying primary studies and reviews suitable for answering the question” (2005:24). It is against the foregoing that the researcher intentionally planned to search for primary materials from different sources including electronic databases and other repositories towards providing unambiguous answers to the main research questions and other sub-questions as indicated in the first chapter of this thesis design. It will be appropriate to state clearly that all literature searches were guided by the key words of the main research question and the ancillary questions.
Obviously, the review of selected literature that have used ecumenical lenses to give ecumenical perspectives related to subjects of justice and peace, overcoming violence, religious fundamentalism and the Islamic thoughts on the subjects of peace and justice. The first part of the review will mainly focus on the Christian perceptions and perspectives on the outlined thematic foci. In order to be objective in some sense within the appropriate section, it would therefore be necessary to provide some reflections on Islamic thoughts on justice and peace. The intention is not to sharply digress from the focus of the research that seeks to present shared perspectives on matters of overcoming violence, advocating for justice, fostering peace and countering negative religious fundamentalism, but to offer critical perspectives of the themes that will hopefully facilitate further constructive engagements between and among people of the two main monotheistic religions, Islam and Christianity in Jos, Nigeria. It will also be safe to state that providing literature review on the aforementioned themes will not be exhaustive, but it is intended that some selected texts will be used for the purpose of expressing common denominators on the themes.
Furthermore, the literature review approach utilised began with identification, evaluation, and synthesizing of the available resource data that are related to the particular ideological concept or phenomena as argued by Kitchenham, Barbra (2007:vi). Employing the literature review approach was anchored on the value and credibility it gives to the research work. Barbra Kitchenham (et al) argues that: “... literature review is a means of evaluating and interpreting a particular research question, topic area, or phenomenon of interest. Systematic reviews aim to present a fair evaluation of a research topic by using a trustworthy, rigorous, and auditable methodology” (2007:iv). The rationale for the choice of the approach is necessary for this type of research because of its focus on existing literary data on the research thematic focuses.
Kitchenham provided profound ground for the essentiality and needfulness of a research tool as this in a bid to galvanize various literary works on a particular research issue or subject.
In order to identify and muster the necessary data for this academic study, the following prominent search engines and relevant institutions with recognised academic libraries were used, namely; EBSCOhost Research Databases, ATLA Religion Databases, Ŕero Union Catalogue, GlobeTheoLib Digital Library, CiteULike Digital References Library, Google Scholar, World Christian Database, Directory of Open Access Journals, UKZN Library, Pietermaritzburg Cluster Libraries, Geneva Library Network, WCC Library and Archives, University of Geneva Library, Geneva Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Library, and Wiley Online Library. In the course of the literature search and data gathering process, both online and hand search were adopted as simple but quality approaches.
1.5.3 Interpretive Tool: Content and Discourse Analysis
Having described the processes of data gathering during the course of this research, it would therefore be appropriate to present the processes through which the data collected were analysed. However, recognising the importance of data analysis in any form of academic research, John Swinton and Harriet Mowat affirmed that: “data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure, and meaning to the complicated mass of qualitative data that the researcher generates during the research process” (2007: 57). This argument brings to the fore the significant function of data analysis in order to make sense of the raw data gathered. The process enables the researcher to synthesize in coherent manner the raw feedback received during the course of the interviews for its usability in shaping the end results of the entire research work. Therefore, the research does not end with data collection but a means to the end. Meanwhile for the purpose of remaining consistent with the structure and approach of this research, the key informant interview sessions conducted provided complementary reinforcement to the main literatures used in this work. Since literature review methodology was adopted as the prime methodological research approach for data extraction and synthesis.
The study adopted as tool in analysing the raw data collected and critical texts used for the purpose of justifying the grounds for the usability of systematic literature review as a critical research methodological approached applied in this research, the grounded theory analytical tool underpinned by the simple inductive approach was used (Strauss, Anselm 1987). The grounded theory analytical approach allowed the researcher to employ the content analysis tool in the research methodology, which was most appropriate to be used as one of the tools for data analysis. Grounded theory analytical approach as argued by Henning refers to as: “all good interpretive inquiry should theorise and discuss data and conceptualise” (2004:47). Henning argues further that: “it is just good qualitative inquiry that is not theory driven, but data driven, with varying views of data from objectivist to subjectivist (or socially constructivist)” (2004:47). The tool is not without its deficiencies as Henning has argued that it has to be driven by data collected from either objectivist’s or subjectivist’s sources. This notion may not go well with other researchers especially in non-empirical research.
However, it remains potent in this form of inquiry carried out by the researcher, being that the various sources of data were mostly from some selected critical texts by relevant scholars that offer credible signposts in relation to prevailing themes in the research. Therefore, it accounted for the adoption of the simple inductive approach to undergird the content analysis processes applied in the course of data analysis and interpretation. Whereas, discourse analysis being the second data analysis tool was meant primarily for interpreting and deconstructing texts or narratives to uncover the embedded logic and meaning, and also to ascertain how the texts or narratives inform the language, ideas, and views that are used in the construction of textual reinforcement of this research. Blanche et al defines discourse analysis as: “...the act of showing how certain discourses is deployed to achieve particular effects in specific contexts” (2006:328). Blanche et al went on to assert that: “in discourse analysis, texts are examined for their effects rather than their veracity” (2006:333). Similarly, thematic analysis was used in the discourse analysis and categories of themes identified in the data obtained. Discourse analysis helped to identify how ideas and views are socially constructed; reason being that every speaker is located in a particular social context that informs the way they speak. Theological analysis was also used to engage the data with existing literature on the notion of Just Peace.
The data collected from the various literatures represents the primary data for the analysis being that was analysed through discourse analytical method. Therefore, it is evident that the work remains a non-empirical qualitative research rather than quantitative as it has heavily depended on literary sources as primary reservoir for its data. The coding of data collected was of immense significance to this research. The foregoing idea on the importance of coding data was echoed loudly by Emerson, wherein he asserts that: “coding is done in order to produce a coherent and comprehensible analysis for readers who are not directly acquainted with the social world of the participants” (1995: 142). The coded data was sorted into themes related to the research questions and other issues that emerged during thematic literature desegregation and triangulation, and also when the key informant interviews were carried out. The data were then coded thematically into the following main themes: the WCC pre-Just Peace initiatives, official declaration by the WCC on the Just Peace notion; Official Statement of the WCC member churches on the notion; the personal knowledge of the interviewees on the Just Peace Concept; other views on the notion of Just Peace; Factors militating against mutual relationship and peaceful co-existence between Christians and Muslims in Jos; Applicability of Just Peace concept for overcoming violence and entrenching enduring peace in Jos and its environ.
1.5.3 Research Site and Access
This research is mainly located within Jos, Nigeria. The reason for the choice of Jos is not farfetched because the subject of inquiry is most relevant to Jos. The city was hitherto known for its tranquillity and serenity, but has in recent time become a hub of religious bigotry, increasing tension, unwarranted suspicion and intolerance between adherents of the two dominant religions, Islam and Christianity (Best 2007:3). It can safely be extrapolated that such behavioural and attitudinal configuration, especially of lack of mutual trust and intolerant to religious and cultural diversities among some adherents of the two religions and residents of the cosmopolitan city of Jos and its environs may have led to violent conflicts, selected attacks and forced relocation that occurred in Jos. It has often times being considered that the violent conflicts that have remained intractable as both ethnically and religiously premeditated or motivated with heavy sociopolitical agenda. Even though such allegations are open for deeper verification and authentication.
Further, Just Peace paradigm, even though, a global conceptual ideology as embraced and vigorously propagated by the worldwide ecumenical movement seems to have a potential that propel locally affirmation and domestication. Meaning, the concept can be localized in its translation and application within a local context with minimal sophistication. It is with this understanding of local application and appropriation that the concept will be analysed and evaluated in order to ascertain and underscore its relevance and applicability in a multi-religious context that has experienced tensions and violent insurrections easily connected to religious and ethnic primordial agendas like Jos and some parts of northern Nigeria.
However, Jos is not the only site for this research, although, it remains the primary research location. Other sites include Ecumenical Institute Bossey and World Council of Churches – Ecumenical Centre Geneva. The use of the term, site, is mainly to refer to social location for data collection during the course of this research. In an effort to consult broadly and gather more data that will enrich the research, the researcher took advantage of his stay in Switzerland while studying at the Ecumenical Institute Bossey, which is in cooperation with University of Geneva to visit the headquarters of World Council of Churches (WCC). During the numerous visits, the researcher interviewed some principal officers on the notion and motivation behind the ecumenical call for Just Peace.
Furthermore, the researcher’s stay at Bossey undoubtedly afforded him the opportunity and time to carefully glean the literary materials that provide credible and robust evidences of discussions on the subject of justice and peace within the ecumenical movement that dovetailed into the concept of Just Peace. The two sites, namely; the WCC headquarters and the Ecumenical Institute Bossey are significant in providing the needed data for this study. Given that the research seeks to examine the ecumenical notion of Just Peace, its appropriateness as potent proposition for overcoming violence and building genuine peace in the pluralistic community stricken by intractable tensions and suspicion leading to violent insurrections like Jos, Nigeria. Apparently, the choice of these sites was intentional as they will provide the desired and appropriate data that will facilitate answering the main research question and sub-questions towards the achievement of the set out research objectives (Holloway 1997: 145). Herman Strydom corroborates with the whole idea of situating the research sites in congruence with the main question of the research, when he states that: “the choice of the problem is automatically directly linked to the particular field in which the inquiry is to be undertaken” (Strydom 2005: 282). The sites invariably were selected because of the consequential effect it have on the research. Obviously, for the purposes of communication and data management, the strategic interviews are conducted in English. The next section focuses on providing explanation on methodological limitations of the research.
1.6 Methodological limitations
Since every academic or non-academic research has its own limitations, therefore, it was an important point to consider the methodological limitations of this research. Apparently, there are always challenges, variations or opposing views that comes to bare in the course of an academic research, more especially of this type and nature. Such occurrences could be associated to any of these three factors, namely; limited resources, time frame, and human ability or deficiency. Like Patton asserted that: “to grasp the complex nature of the social reality” (2002:232).
The researcher’s insider position as a leader within the local ecumenical movement that has continued to bring the twelve WCC member churches located in Jos into fellowship, and also being familiar with the situations and participants afforded the advantage of interacting freely with the people and being able to readily earn their trust and cooperation. However this insider status has both disadvantages and advantages. According to Dahlberg et al have elaborately argued on the status of a researcher as an insider, wherein they say that such has its advantages and disadvantages (2010: 1- 12). Some of the disadvantages include the likelihood of being biased and viewing the issues at hand from the perspective of one’s position rather than as an objective researcher. To overcome this limitation, in-depth explanation of the role of a researcher was given in order to facilitate critical distance and respect for my role, not as someone ‘working on behalf of the church’ but as a scholar seeking critical information that will contribute to knowledge (Dahlberg et al 2010: 6). On the other hand, the insider researcher has the advantage of being familiar with the structures and specific knowledge of the subject of study. With this knowledge they can ask the most relevant and meaningful questions. At the end the exercise may help “increase professional skills and promote reflective learning” (Dahlberg et al 2010: 5-6). Similarly, Flick argues that: “one of the potential limitations of an outsider researcher is unfamiliarity with the people, their mode of operation and activities” (2002: 58). In that case, Flick suggests one should try to become an insider. Flick says further that: “A source of knowledge in this context is to gradually take an insider’s perspective to understand the individual’s view point or the organisational principles of social groups from a member’s perspective” (2002: 58). Another advantage of being an insider researcher is that one is familiar with the structures - in this case the church structures - and how they operate. However, being a pastor can also create power issue with lay members and with other pastors who have been students of the researcher. This potential problem was neutralised by avoiding an atmosphere built on church defined status, but one based on the academic objectives in which information was needed for the research purposes of a doctoral student.
According to Erik Hofstee; “All methods have limitations. Perfection is seldom if ever, attainable” (Hofstee 2009: 117). As such, this study does not claim any perfection; it has its own limitations as well. The participants’ cooperation was important because the lessons learnt from them have the potential of influencing the applicability of the Just Peace concept as virile ideological framework for attaining a religious plural society that is defined by just humanity underpinned by justice and peace. However, as noted, there were some limitations in the way in which data was collected.
Some of the participants were female even though extremely limited. Therefore, it was possible that certain gender issues may have arisen during the course of the research, but have not affected in any negative sense the outcome of the research. However, being a male researcher it became important to be gender sensitive by making the few women visible and ensuring that their voices included at all levels of this research. Apparently, full gender equity or equality was not possible, because of the hierarchical nature of church leadership and cultural socio-constructs of female participation in public affairs within the context of the research, which was regrettable.
The diversity in religion and culture within Jos and environs are also potential issues that limits the study, since the focus of the key informant study is mostly driven by one religious ideology, which was necessary in part for logistical reasons. The number of participants compared to the total population of both the local and global ecumenical movement membership and also the religious landscape of Jos and environs is small, but the participants do represent the entire facets of the research context to guarantee valid feedbacks and conclusion. Representivity in qualitative research relies on information-rich cases rather than on the size of the population studied. Since the participants were purposively and randomly selected, even though they were considered to be well positioned to provide critical information that addressed the research problem, because of their good knowledge of the research context (Silverman 2010: 194). Furthermore, Patton posits that: “The logic and power of purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-rich cases for study in depth. Information-rich cases are those from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the research….” (1990: 169). This means that the reliability and validity of my study will not be undermined like asserted by Hofstee (2009: 118).
1.7 Scope and Limitation
The scope of the research will be limited to Jos, Nigeria being the context that has provided the simulation for the research. Jos has been trapped in violent conflicts for years with many factors considered as responsible for interrupting the serenity and tranquillity enjoyed by residents for many years that went by. Further to that, the research sought to determine to what extent the religious groups especially members of the WCC in Jos contributed to social cohesion, Just Peace building and integration within the Jos area. Exploring further, the research will examine the extent in which religion may have been manipulated to instrumentalize violent conflicts and divisiveness in Jos between the year 1993 and 2013, which makes a period of two decades (20 years). The research will also investigate the contributions made by religious bodies and some civil society actors that may have induced a state of social stability that may secure the area for social transformation and development.
1.8 Literature Reviews
It is appropriate to state that the literature search has greatly enhanced and widen my academic horizon on the subjects being engaged with in this research.
1.8.1. Ecumenical Discourse on Justice and Peace
Issues concerning justice and peace have become important agenda and most urgent for communities threatened by systemic or structural violence and wars. The plural and highly diverse community of Jos, Nigeria represents one context within the vast African continent that visibly reflects a profound quest for overcoming all forms of violence and fostering genuine peace, especially among and between the different religious communities of faith. Peace and justice are inseparable concepts and/or notions that require each other for unquestionable authenticity. Geiko Müller-Fahrenholz in Petersen and Simion (eds.) supports in strong manner the perspective that: “peace does not deserve its name if it sanctions injustice. Justice cannot be introduced and sustained in situations of warfare. Therefore, it is fair to say that justice and peace are two sides of a coin” (2010:6). However, this perspective of justice and peace is sometime constructed to meet the interest of the elites rather than meeting the needs of those who live on the margins of society.
Conceptually peace is not only the absence of war. Therefore, Natalie Pearl in Petersen & Simion (eds.) asserts that: “peace can only exist when justice is achieved and that justice must be based on peace built on the preservation of human dignity and human rights” (2010:73). This argument is further elucidated by Wolfgang Huber in Barkat (ed.) wherein he asserts that: “Peace is not merely the absence of war and collective acts of violence; rather, the concept of peace implies the concept of justice, freedom and development” (1970:141). He goes on to argue that: “For if peace were merely defined as the absence of war and collective acts of violence, it would be quite compatible with unjust social conditions, political dictatorship and economic exploitation” (Barkat 1970:141). Therefore, Wolfgang Huber went on to fortify the foregoing assertions wherein he affirms that: “Action promoting peace would thus not aim at eliminating the causes leading to conflicts; it would merely try to eliminate their after-effects. Thus, a concept of peace which looks deeper than the symptoms must take due account of justice, freedom and development” (Barkat (1970:141-2). Therefore, without justice and peace the quality of life diminishes in human communities. Human beings living in any society that dichotomizes the existential expression of justice and peace no doubt experience fake well-being. For human beings to experience greater well-being, justice and peace must be made to operate as embracing framework that governs both immediate and wider interaction in the human society.
Furthermore, in trying to highlight the interconnectedness between justice and peace, the definition of the term “justice” was sought for from the Longman dictionary. Justice is describe as, “fairness in the way people are treated” (Longman 2003:878). The key terms in the definition are “fairness” and “treat”. The terms are important as they remind the human society and all systems in place to ensure that all humankind are treated fairly and by so doing peace can partly be guaranteed. Marshall in his effort to define justice postulates that: “justice is not a straight forward or singular concept. Justice is generic or inclusive term embracing a variety of meanings and applications. This makes it very difficult to reduce justice to a simple all-encompassing definition”(2005:6). However, Marshall goes on to strongly affirm that, “justice must be underpinned by just distribution of resources, equitability in adjudication, legitimacy of power and protection of rights of the human person” (2005:6-7). Therefore, justice involves the deliberate convergence of multiple approaches and actions that will ensure that all faucets of human existential realities within both civil and traditional frameworks of governance and interaction.
Meanwhile, Marshall’s notion of justice is relevant giving the encompassing dimensions of the operationalization of justice in human society he advanced. He brought to fore that justice must be predicated on equity, rights, distribution and power balance and anything short of that must be questioned or interrogated with the knowledge that should any of the defining vistas of justice is missing, such justice must be reworked to safeguard and entrench durable peace. Interestingly, it has been commonly shared that justice remains a concept premised on moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, equity and fairness; as well as the administration of the law, taking into account the inalienable and inborn rights of all human beings and citizens. Justice ensures that all people and individuals given equal protection and treated equitably before the law within the existing justice system without discrimination; whether on the basis of race, gender, sexuality, identity, national origin, colour, ethnicity, religion, disability, age, or other characteristics, and is further regarded as being inclusive of social justice (Rawls 1999, Konow 2003). Therefore, as a religious study targeted at the religious communities, it will suffice to say that restorative justice should be giving prominence and should be applied whenever and wherever injustice is meted out to any person or group. Werner argues that: “restorative justice, in which what has been taken wrongly from victims, is restored, either directly or in some symbolic way. This may be by reparation or compensation”(2013:310). Werner’s argument captures the notion of restorative justice that would be desired in Jos, Nigeria in order to bring about solid untainted reconciliation that will secure and booster peace between the so-called perpetrator and victim.
In essence, peace is better realised when justice is guaranteed. Apparently, it could well be alluded that it will be needful to critique the school of thought that holds to the claim that injustice may exist, but peace may still thrive. Such notion of peace remains a mirage, simply because such kind of peace is not underscored or defined by prosperity, tranquillity, serenity and well-being. Nicolas Wolterstorff asserts that: “...shalom incorporates right, harmonious relationships to nature and delight in our physical surroundings. Shalom comes when we, bodily creatures and not disembodied souls, shape the world with our labour and find fulfilment in so doing and delight in its results” (Wolterstorff 1983:70). Wolterstorff assertion resonates with the cravings of the common people in this research context for durable peace anchored on justice that facilitates mutual interaction in the society. Therefore, it can be safe to say that, it is a dream dreamt by the people, as they desire a community that is constructed and structured on the notion of caring for one another regardless of the religious or cultural affiliations of the people. It must also be acknowledged that it is not an easy task to make such dream a reality giving the complexities and complications within the wider society where greed, self-centredness, corruption and all manner of wickedness and cruelty are considered the norm not the exception.
Reinforcing the foregoing assertion by Wolterstorff on the notion of “shalom”, Yoder, a wellknown scholar in the intellectual discourse on the subject of “shalom” strongly affirms that: “shalom, a biblical peace, is squarely against injustice and oppression... shalom demands a transforming of unjust social and economic orders... shalom acts against oppressors for the sake of victims” (1987:5). The foregoing multiple perspectives as shared by Yoder on the crux of “shalom” as upheld and demonstrated within the Jewish tradition is profound. Yoder links Shalom concept to the Missio Dei which relates to the mission of God in the world where the church is invited to participate in. Yoder argues in affirmation to the above assertion that: “the Christian community is an agency of peace-making in ways often underestimated” (2007:130).
In the same vein, Friesen posits that churches “must evolve from traditions to non-resistance and non-participation in war towards active nonviolent peace-making which involves not only resistance and conscientious objection to war, but also active participation in the relief of suffering, building the institutions of peace and working to remove the causes of war” (2003:234). In order for this to be achieved, the church would have to adopt deep commitment in peace building by taking side through active nonparticipation in acts of violent conflicts or wars. Individually, it may prove to be ‘a bridge too far’ for individual churches to cross but through ecumenical partnership, churches can unite in missional and Koinonia relationship to strengthen their corporate stand against life denying forces of war and all manner of violent conflict.
Similarly, according to Strong (1995), Shalom is synonymous to totality or completeness, wholeness (both individual and communal), community, tranquillity, security, well-being, welfare, friendship, agreement, success, and prosperity. Strong’s view of shalom embodies the elaborate condiments that make for a just and peaceful society. Therefore, for a society to be said to be a peaceful society it must exhibit the outlined characteristics by Strong. It is no doubt not easy to find a society completely expressing such characteristics. However, it does not constitute an excuse but deliberate efforts must continually be made to make such characteristics a reality. In like manner, Donagh asserts that: “Christians ... above all, are obliged to respect the dignity of person-in-society by realising the values of inviolability, freedom, equality and participation” (1980:26). Donagh reminds Christians as a people or as a community of their obligation to ensure that right systems and structures that would guarantee respect and protection of human rights and dignity are entrenched and functional. Christians by Donagh’s argument have no excuse to be silent in the face of gross injustice, inequality and all manner of inhuman acts. Otieno concurs with the assertions put forward by Strong and Donagh on the roles that the church as a community of believers ought to play in safeguarding human society crude and brutal actions of others because of privilege power, thereby affirms that:
The Churches are indeed bequeathed with a great moral power to care for the weak and vulnerable lives. The church is called to be peaceable community in which the strong are willing to surrender their power for the sake of the common humanity. God then becomes part of such a community because it mediates justice and saving grace of the Spirit...hence peaceful and harmonious living among and between all people (2008:49).
Justice and peace are indispensable instruments of fostering reconciliation and restoring human relationship in communities that have been damaged by violent conflicts and intractable tensions and suspicions. The church is called to be a peace-building community that intentionally works to ensure that political and economic power function for the greater good and held accountable to the benefit of all humankind, and not for a few privileged individuals at the expense of the majority. The God who is at work in the lives of people is one who mediates and expresses complete justice that builds peace that will facilitate development. Knowing that progress and social transformation can only take place in an environment that have embrace the ethos of peace.
Notably, the advocacy commitment and initiatives of the ecumenical movement for the cause of justice and peace around the world could be seen in some of the programmes of WCC as outlined earlier. The programmes will be discussed subsequently with a view to deduce on whether the ecumenical movement’s efforts have contributed towards the adjustment and recalibration of law of engagement and modus-operandi by national governments and multilateral systems and organizations involved in peacekeeping intervention and other issues of human rights (WCC 2013:31-34). While documenting all the initiatives and engaged lead to the publication of many literary works by the World Council of Churches and such publications have continued to be used as intellectual references, some of whom the researcher has used in this study. Going further in the ecumenical movement’s quest for a violent-free human society, the WCC convened a consultation from 13th to 18th April 1996 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to develop a framework for the programme to overcome violence and for peace in the broader sense (WCC 2001:12). The framework captured in succinct manner the commitment of the ecumenical movement as expressed during its first assembly in 1948 in Amsterdam, Netherlands (Raiser 2002:51-2). Apparently the foregoing indicated in clear terms the urgency linked to the realization of peace fostered by justice as advanced by the ecumenical movement right from inception. The Rio de Janeiro consultation produced an elaborate and well thought out report that brought out in implicit way the ecumenical agenda and framework on overcoming violence and advocating for peace. The report of the consultation has consistently made reference to the ecumenical movement’s commitment to peace that must be anchored on authentic justice as expressed during its first assembly. One of the reference that stood out as reinforcement to the foregoing assertion that expresses the abiding commitment of ecumenical movement to the cause of justice and peace was; “since its first Assembly, the World Council of Churches has stressed the need to seek ‘peace with justice’” (WCC 1998:24). The statement reflects the unrelenting desire of the ecumenical movement to contribute its quota towards making the world a just and peaceful place for all.
The various perspectives shared above and the common quest for a peaceful world hallmarked by inclusive justice may have influenced programmatic expression of WCC on issues of peace and justice through the following programmatic intervention; Just, Participatory and Sustainable
Society (JPSS), the conciliar process for Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation (JPIC), the
Theology of Life (TOL) programme, Programme to Combat Racism (PCR), Programme to Overcome Violence (POV), and most recently, the Decade to Overcome Violence (DOV) declaration, which came about as resultant effects of the activities and impact of the Programme to Overcome Violence (WCC 2011:14). The quest for justice and peace in the ecumenical movement compelled the institution to organize two remarkable international convocations on justice and peace, namely; the World Convocation on Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation that took place in March 1990 at Seoul, Republic of Korea and the International Ecumenical Peace Convocation, which took place at Kingston, in Jamaica in 2011. These two events were profoundly incredible in shaping and oscillating the agenda for a just society for all, and to further guide the ecumenical movement in its effort to identify global methods and strategies toward combating violence and mitigating its adverse impact on humankind and the ecosystem.
However, the process revealed that the desirability manifested in the quest towards ‘overcoming violence’ will not necessarily result in the achievement of genuine peace that could be described as “just”, especially, when overcoming violence will not lead to the demolishing of unjust structures and transforming or reformulation of systems that are tolerant to all forms of injustice. However, it does not in any way suggest that violence should be allowed to continue, simply because all other structures that perpetuate injustice are not eliminated to allow for justice to take central place in affairs of human society. Apparently, overcoming violence is one consequential action that will contribute immensely to the stability of a community bedevilled by violent conflicts. In acknowledgement of the foregoing shared perceptions, the focus of the ecumenical movement shifted towards deeper quest for a "just, participatory and sustainable society" as a desirable reality to be experienced by all God’s creation (WCC 2011).
Ostensibly, the recognition of the persistence of abject or extreme poverty, especially in contexts where climate change precipitated by irresponsible human behaviour or action influenced by greed has no doubt made the plights of the poor more worst, majorly because of increasing threats to the earth's capacity to sustain human life. Such ugly scenarios have exacerbated the worsening condition of the people; thereby increase and accelerate the people’s susceptibility to becoming violent at slightest provocation. The WCC continued to appeal to the churches to make public their commitments and undertake common action on the threats to life in the areas of justice, peace and integrity of creation as part of the essence of what it means to be the church (WCC 2012:28). Embracing the nonviolence approach or mechanism in resolving contentious issues that relate to injustice and inequality will certainly be helpful and less stressful. It will also enhance life affirming interaction among the world’s citizens. Even though, it will not be foreclosed or pre-emptied that nonviolent principles be taken as a universal norm because there are violent actions have turned many other parts of the world turning millions of people into refugees and migrant fleeing their homelands because of violent conflicts taking place in the areas, which are reported almost on daily basis by international media. It may be easily said that some people or groups will rather opt for a violent reaction in order to express their perceived grievances. The call for nonviolence approach in resolving issues of injustice may not be fully accepted by some school of thoughts as they would rather have a caveat that provides for applying minimum force or some form of violent reaction in confronting injustice as earlier indicated. There are common adages in northern Nigeria often said in Hausa language, but I translated into English, thus: “Living in peace is far better than being a prince or princess’ and ‘whatever peace cannot bring or give, violence will most certainly not bring or give either”(A’isha Kabir Jos 2012). Therefore, nonviolence approach to resolving conflicting or contentious issues cannot be substituted or alternated with any other approach or strategy regardless of the ecclesial or political affiliation and ideological groundings of the presupposed opponents.
Since 1991, the ecumenical movement has embraced an ideological notion known as "theology of life". The notion invites the church and humanity as a whole to embrace in a very strong way the ideals of genuine peace that is accompanied by authentic justice for all God’s creation (Müller-Fahrenholz 1995:108-12; Enns 2007:149-61). Theology of life further compels humanity and in particular the church to renounce and denounce all theologies and philosophies that justifies the use of violence as ideal means of expressing dissatisfaction and resolving conflicts or disputes (Enns 2007:149-61; DEM 2002:893-5). Similarly, it reminds and loudly calls on the church to “confront, reject and overcome the spirit, logic and practice of war (violent conflicts) and develop new theological approaches, consonant with the teachings of Christ, which starts not with war and move to peace, but begins with peace that embraces justice in concrete form” (WCC 1995:16). In essence, the theology of life embodies peace and justice as its undergirding principles. Apparently, the church must understand that participating in MissionDei should compel the church to intentionally live out the biblical and theological ideals of peacemaking as most central in its life and witness in a highly pluralised world.
Therefore, the above outlined programmes of WCC, each of which built on the insights of its predecessor, sought to encourage the churches to make costly commitments to justice, peace and integrity of creation. It is imperative for the church as an institution and community to lead the way following the legacies bequeathed to it by Christ the head of the church on working for peace and peaceful coexistence among peoples of the world and peace with the environment.
1.8.2 Ecumenical Discourse on Overcoming Violence
The Decade to Overcome Violence as commonly referred to as “DOV” became a strategic step taken by World Council of Churches (WCC) to make its voice heard in the efforts toward a global society that is free of violent conflict (WCC 2011:7). The following reflective questions will be interrogated in order to understand the ecumenical perspectives that undergirded the focus on this life threatening phenomenon. Why a decade? Is it in the nature of international ecumenical organisation to use ten (10) years as a timeframe for project interventions rather than formulating a time line for action based upon contextual realities that shape the nature of the problem? What were the global factors in the 1990’s that made the overcoming of violence a global priority agenda item? What was the ecumenical understanding of the concept of violence? What was the WCC programmatic response intended to achieve and how feasible were the objectives? What was the state of violence in the world at that time? The “DOV” was adopted by the WCC Central Committee at its meeting in Geneva between 28th August and 3rd September 1999 as a follow up action to the 1998 WCC eighth assembly in Harare, Zimbabwe. During the committee meeting, a statement was issued that contained the following perspectives on peace and reconciliation:
We must give up being spectators of violence or merely lamenting it and must act to overcome violence both within and outside the walls of the church. We remind ourselves and the churches of our common responsibility to speak out boldly against any defence of unjust and oppressive structures, of racism, of the use of violence, including especially violence against women and children, and of other gross violations of human rights committed in the name of any nation or ethnic group. If churches do not combine their witness for peace and reconciliation with the search for unity among themselves, they fail in their mission to the world. Leaving behind what separates us, responding ecumenically to the challenge, proving that nonviolence is an active approach to conflict resolution, and offering in all humility what Jesus Christ taught his disciples to do, the churches have a unique message to bring to the violence-ridden world (WCC 1999:187-8).
This commitment to nonviolence as an active instrument in conflict resolution seems to link the thrust of the WCC with that of the United Nations Organisation (UN). The foregoing assumption could be substantiated in the commonality of some of the objectives both international organizations seem to share in the formulation of intents and purposes for intervention or action. The statement of the ecumenical movement that suggests common focus can be deduced from the statement following:
The Decade to Overcome Violence will provide a platform to share stories and experiences, develop relationships and learn from each other. The Decade will build upon the initiatives that are already there; we recognize that our work is parallel to the work of the United Nations "Decade for a Culture of Peace and Nonviolence for the Children of the World". We hope to connect with such initiatives and help them to motivate and strengthen each other. It will facilitate the churches to assist and support each other in their ministry. We offer with the Decade to Overcome Violence a truly ecumenical space, a safe space for encounter, mutual recognition, and common action. We will strive together to overcome the spirit, logic and practice of violence. We will work together to be agents of reconciliation and peace with justice in homes, churches and communities as well as in the political, social and economic structures at national and international levels. We will co-operate to build a culture of peace that is based on just and sustainable communities (WCC 1999:189).
The statement brought out clearly a number of features that strongly conveys the uncompromising goal by both international organizations for overcoming violence being experienced in different parts of the world. The distinction between the two may be strongly anchored on their principles and intervention frameworks in mitigating violent conflicts. Meanwhile, the researcher questions whether or not the WCC was naive in its quest to overcome violence. However, one cannot conclude on whether the WCC quest emerged from the groundswell of demands from its member churches. Rather, it could be argued that the WCC may as well be simply following a strategic focused agenda that was already determined by more powerful political multilateral organizations like the UN and other international bodies such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)? It is not in doubt that these multilateral governmental institutions, UN and NATO, are committed to peace, however, they are prepared to engage in violence using weapons of war as tools for resolving violent conflicts (Glanville 2012:322). It may be speculated that these institutions and other nation-states’ interventions in violent conflict situations have rather escalated the violence possibly because of their aggressive strategy of engagement, where the civilian populations are grossly harmed and often times bear the brunt of the military offensive.
Accordingly, there are instances in which Presidents of United States of America (USA), precisely, Presidents, George W. Bush and Barack Obama that may have suggested blatant sanctioning of military intervention in the name of peacekeeping. Such shared views political leaders from the northern hemisphere contradict the views of many people committed to cause of genuine peace and justice that is achieved through nonviolent approaches. Could there be a hidden agenda between these Northern Organisations that speak of overcoming violence but are prepared to wage war to achieve their invisible objectives? How can the use of heavy and light arms or weapons bring about sustainable peace? Considering that the WCC is located in the same premier Northern city of Geneva that is also host to many international political, economic and financial organisations, serious questions must be asked about the nature of relationship that exist between this ecumenical instrument and these other institutions or organisations. This research may attempt to explore the nature of relationship the WCC maintains with these organizations, and further interrogate on whether the WCC was therefore being used by these international institutions as a strategic global instrument to carry out their political agenda? And also examine on whether the WCC was able to maintain its missional identity and critical solidarity relationship without losing its own credibility and commitment to the pursuit of authentic peace? Nevertheless, this research is not mainly intended to deeply carry out a diagnosis of the relations between the ecumenical movement and the multilateral organizations being that such does not constitute a major part of the scope of this research.
Since the WCC has been formed to equip and strengthen the capacity of its member churches for active missio-Dei with the expectation that they will proactively engage in the world’s agenda of transforming the issues and factors that result in human conflicts and violence by making it missional priority and agenda (Lossky 2002:27-9). Consequently, in 1969, WCC convened a consultation on “Alternatives to Conflict in the Quest for Peace” in order to make it unequivocally known its commitment to the cause of peace. Emerging out of the consultation was a document titled; “Conflict, Violence and Peace” (Barkat ed. 1970). This specific publication articulated the commitment of WCC towards advocating for viable alternative to the prevalence of violence as a just means of resolving conflict or injustice being experienced by people, community and by extension a nation-state.
To buttress further on the question on the use of alternatives while discussing the subject of conflicts, Barkat says that: “the use of the phrase ‘alternatives’ to conflict may raise some difficulties and misunderstandings which require clarification… the writer does not want to give the impression that conflict can be completely eliminated from society, or that there are final ‘alternatives’ to the conflict in society” (1970:11). He further clarified that: “there are alternatives in specific conflict situation which need to be clearly understood and sought after for the management of the conflict. Only an idealist could dream of a domestic and international society free of all conflicts”(Barkat 1970:11). This seminal text emerging from the WCC consultation on alternatives to conflicts demonstrates the commitment of the ecumenical movement towards advancing alternatives to violence as mechanism for managing conflicting interests and agendas. The use of alternatives must not be taken as a call for possible application of violent reaction in expressing discontentment and dissatisfaction, but to be viewed as an ideological strategy intended to foreclose or eliminate conceiving thought of violent approach to resolving unjust issues and maltreatment.
Barkat acknowledged that conflict and violence are imminent in human society, wherein he argued that: “not every conflict leads necessary to violence. Violence is potentially present in all conflict situations. It must not necessarily be overt. Whether the conflict will result in violence depends upon the nature of the structure and the level of conflict in a given situation”(1970:11). The statement implies that certain structures of the society in which people live may facilitate violence in resolving injustice. Therefore, attention and extra efforts must be made towards structural analysis of conflict situation in order to proffer durable solution for the avoidance of reoccurrence of violent conflict in any human society.
Furthermore, recognizing the impact that WCC has made and will continue to make in advancing the cause of non-violence approach in resolving conflicts and issues of injustice, Bishop Stanley Mogoba in his sermon during the 1994 WCC Central Committee meeting held in Johannesburg, South Africa, initiated the call for a programmatic expression to the WCC emphasis on overcoming violence: “After the WCC’s Programme to Combat Racism has contributed so much to overcome apartheid, is it not time now to create a Programme to Combat Violence?” (1998:1). The foregoing statement stimulated deeper quest for active involvement of the ecumenical movement in making violence approach in resolving contentious issues as human worst enemy.
The WCC Central Committee during the Johannesburg meeting having been challenged by Bishop Mogoba’s sermon and the troubling reports received about ongoing violence in some parts of the world unanimously resolved that: “the World Council of Churches establish a Programme to Overcome Violence, with the purpose of challenging and transforming the global culture of violence in the direction of a culture of just peace” (1995:17). A strategic framework was designed by selective experts from member churches for the programme that clearly shows direction, targets, goals and guiding principles to ensure collegiality and consistency in the implementation of the programme (WCC 1995:19). The resolution was a milestone in the history of the ecumenical movement in expressing its unwavering dedication to discredit and make violent actions most unattractive both as a contradiction and contravention of the law of love as set by the creator of the universe and humankinds.
Acknowledging that violence is a serious threat to life, the need for non-violent approaches to resolving any form of human differences constitutes an urgent missional mandate for the churches. Kässmann argues that: “it is high time for the churches to think afresh about their position in regard to violence. Violence threatens life on earth which Christian men and women know to be created by God. Christians are therefore bound to be concerned about the destruction of human beings, human dignity, our fellow creatures and the world we live” (1998:2). It will be safe to state that any Christian church that fails to prioritize the message of nonviolent approach to resolving conflict its mission, witness and vocation should be questioned, knowing that the Christ of the church has instructed the church to propagate the message of peace in season and out of season. It is therefore expedient for churches to intentionally advocate for nonviolent principles in expressing and confronting all manners of conflicts and dissatisfaction by citizens.
Following the resolution taken by the Central Committee of WCC to establish “Programme to Overcome Violence” came the declaration of the “Decade to Overcome Violence (DOV)”. The strategic objective of the DOV according to Konrad Raiser a former General Secretary of the World Council of Churches, was a new ecumenical ethos meant to “promote a culture of peace and nonviolence through the Decade to Overcome Violence: Churches Seeking Reconciliation and Peace…and all people of goodwill to work together to overcome violence through peace and justice (2001 – 2010)” (WCC 2000:5). The Decade to Overcome Violence (DOV) became an important ecumenical missional strategy to profile the numerous incidences of violent conflicts that have engulfed many societies of the world, in order for the ecumenical movement to be in active solidarity with victims of violence and to challenge structures and actions that perpetuate violence. The DOV was finally adopted by the WCC Central Committee at its meeting in Geneva between 28th August and 3rd September 1999 as a follow up action to the 1998 WCC eighth assembly in Harare, Zimbabwe (WCC 1999:186). During the committee meeting, a statement was issued that contained the following perspective on peace and reconciliation as earlier mentioned. However, it will be appropriate to state the profound readiness demonstrated by the ecumenical movement to ensure that its voice is heard loudly on efforts galvanized towards overcoming violence and entrenching a culture of nonviolence. The statement highlights the call that: “We must give up being spectators of violence or merely lamenting it and must act to overcome violence both within and outside the walls of the church” (WCC 1999:187). The ecumenical movement urged its member churches not to be just spectators in challenging and confronting the popular culture of violence towards advocating in strong terms the inculcation of a culture that compels people and communities to tow the path of decency in resolving troubling issues capable of brewing animosity that may lead to violent reaction. Undoubtedly, the commitment expressed by the ecumenical movement to nonviolence principles as a potent instrument in conflict resolution and building life affirming relations between and amongst the people existing in a particular social location. Such commitment by the ecumenical movement has continued to endear it to many international and multilateral governmental and nongovernmental organizations that have also exhibited commitment to the cause of peace and peaceful coexistence between people and institutions for human and environmental wellbeing.
The “Decade to Overcome Violence” ended with documented publication titled “Overcoming Violence: The Ecumenical Decade 2001 – 2010” that provides an elaborate overview of international actions and projects carried during the decade. Fernando Enns wrote in the introductory pages of the aforementioned document that:
This Decade may have come to an end, but for us it is just a start: on the grounds of all that gathered experience and knowledge, we are called to develop a coherent ecumenical theology of peace with justice and care for creation. On that fresh commitment of the churches within the ecumenical community would prove that the DOV was not about some activism of yet another, but a confessing family of churches who truly believe against all evil in the power of overcoming evil by doing good (WCC 2011:9).
The foregoing statement expresses obvious realization on the part of the ecumenical movement to harness the gains of the Decade to Overcome Violence to strategize for greater and deeper engagement of issues that make for justice and peace to abound in human society and the environment. Recognizing the risk of ecumenical programmes to become opportunities for talk shops and not platforms for designing concrete actions to combat forces of injustice and transform unjust structures and systems. Kirk reinforces the idea that identifying the challenges faced by people should compel human institutions to address them appropriately in order to ensure social stability and cohesion, he argues: “violence can only be terminated once the justice of people’s grievances has been recognized and addressed” (Kirk 1999:143). He further emphasized that: “unless peace is built upon the righting of social and economic wrongs, it is quite simply an illusion” (Kirk 1999:143). His assertion can be seen as an invitation to go beyond public declaration of intention to overcome violence within a set period. It calls for deliberate strategic frameworks to be put in place to challenge unjust structures that triggers violence. However, Huber offers an alternative perspective. He postulates that:
...taming violence occurs primarily by educating people to behave non-violently and by making the law supreme. Among the means of control that the state uses is the use of police precautionary measures against acts of violence and military securing of peace…these violent government measures must be tied firmly to the duty to prevent violence and to decrease it (Huber 1996:131).
Huber’s argument seems to be contradictory. He argues that violence can only be restrained by deliberately placing responsibility and authority to stop or decrease violence in the law that empowers the military and/or police to enforce the said law (Huber 1996:131). Apparently, the expression of violence by people can be associated to the notion of how societies are organised, and whether the citizens are actively involved in shaping the system that delivers justice. It may be presumed that where sense of ownership and confidence in systems that are expected to adjudicate and dispense justice are lacking, the possibility of abuse of privileged power by those in positions of state authority is high. A female theologian, who has been involved with theologizing the notion of justice and peace with the premise of overcoming violence, Esther Mombo, she asserts that, the DOV offered the church the opportunity to commit itself to advocating for nonviolence approaches in all manners of disputes and also to stand unwaveringly on the cause of justice (2011:71). She asserts further that:
The DOV’s aim was to call the churches and all people of goodwill to commit themselves to a journey of peace. This was an appeal to work for the empowerment of those oppressed by violence and to act in solidarity with those struggling for justice, peace and the integrity of creation. The DOV urged people to repent of their complicity in violence and to engage in reflection to overcome the spirit, logic and practice of violence (2011:71).
The DOV as a programme recognized that member churches of the WCC had a strategic role to play in finding practical solutions in addressing the global phenomenon of violence. It has been widely said that some of the churches have become complacent and complicit in violent conflicts within their local contexts and beyond. Whereas, churches in Nigeria such as the Roman Catholic Church, Church of the Brethren and Church of Christ in Nations became victims of violence because of their solidarity with victims that lived on the margins (Falola 2009, Nguvugher 2010, Kaigama 2012). Moreover, some interest groups that are politically and economically privileged used such privileges to persecute the churches that take such prophetic stand in identifying perpetrators of violence (Christian Association of Nigeria 2010). Their diverse experiences have taught that any serious commitment to overcoming violence will be a costly endeavour and may result in devastating consequences.
However, in the midst all the quackmire, Gandhi offers a global admonition on the need to embrace quite fully and openly the principles of nonviolence. He states that:
...nonviolence is the greatest force humanity has been endowed with. Truth is the only goal we have. For God is none other than Truth. But Truth cannot be, never will be reached except through nonviolence. That which distinguishes us from other animals is our capacity to be nonviolent. And we fulfil our mission only to the extent that we are nonviolent and no more (quoted by Wink 2000:2).
The admonition sounds profound and compelling for all to embrace of nonviolent ideals as the credible for life enhancing way of resolving conflicting issues. Especially issues with the propensity to cause violent reactions, the nonviolent principles should be implored mitigate on such issues. The quote urges for deliberate effort be made towards entrenching a culture of nonviolence in all kinds of human society. The argument that embracing a nonviolence approach in resolving conflict issues will lead to both parties involved appreciating the outcome without feeling short-changed can be debated. The presumption that all the parties in the conflict will be satisfied with the outcome of conflict resolution may be problematic. The use of the term
“truth” by Ghandi can also be problematic. The puzzle will be what is the truth in such conflict circumstance? It may be more viable to emphasis the notion of the common or greater good for all the parties involved in a conflict. The focus should be more on what will serve the interest of all while embracing the philosophy of nonviolence in mitigating conflict issue.
1.9 Structure of the Dissertation
The dissertation is made up of seven (7) chapters and each chapter is sequentially connected to the next on the basis of the ideological grounding rooted in the desire to present a wellresearched work on the notion of Just Peace as essentially capable to catalyse actions towards overcoming violence in any multi-religious and multicultural society, but specifically in Jos, Nigeria. The chapters are briefly described in sequential order as given below:
Chapter one provides a general introduction to the entire dissertation. The chapter gives the research background, research motivation and rationale, context of the research, research problem, research questions, research objectives, research methodology and design, systematic literature review, scope and limitation, and brief description of the structure of the dissertation. The chapter therefore presents an academic quick snapshot of the whole dissertation.
Chapter two focuses on providing insights to the missiological tool utilized to critique the Just Peace concept and also provided broad explanation on the three main theoretical frameworks employed in the research. The theories include; one, ‘for a culture of life: reconsidering peace and justice’ advanced by the former General Secretary of WCC, Rev Dr Konrad Raiser, two, ‘a covenantal model: promoting peace among the Abrahamic traditions’ propagated by William T. Dickens, Professor and Chair, Religious Studies and Department Director, Franciscan Center for Catholic Studies Siena College, and the last theory is ‘Ubuntu: an African concept of communitarianism’, a concept that emerged for an African culture apostle by many PanAfricanists. The chapter provides elaborate perspectives on the theories and their relevance to the research with clear indication on their intersection and convergences as independent but interdependent theories in this research endeavour.
Chapter three primarily focuses on the background to the situation of non-peace in Jos. Within the chapter, issues relating to religious plurality of Jos, religious fundamentalism and all that it entails are presented. The chapter also provided some of the conflict triggers in the area. The possible causes of the violent conflicts in Jos are outlined and discussed with the hope that, it will lead to the factors to be demystified and unbundled for a genuine culture of peace underpinned by justice to be entrenched.
Chapter four presents an architectural overview of the World Council of Churches, its nature, its historical engagement on matters of justice and peace, some major landmark initiatives for a just world and other critical programme interventions established and implemented by the ecumenical movement. Some of the initiatives and programmes are well discussed in the chapter in order to provide helpful information on the efforts being made by WCC towards the realization of the desired goal of a just and inclusive human society.
Chapter five focuses on the whole concept of Just Peace with the craving for a just and peaceful society as the undergirding desire in the whole research discourse. It gives brief overview on the just war theory not on the basis that the research is a paradigmatic study on a shift from the theory to the just peace concept, but for the purpose of providing a little insight in the theory and to showcase the glaring departure between the two theories. The chapter also presents multidimensional approaches to the understanding of the notion of Just Peace including linguistic definition of the term.
Chapter six provides a succinct, but precise outline of milestone initiatives taken by local organisations in Jos towards overcoming violence, building genuine peace and advocating for authentic justice at the global and local levels, with attention paid on initiatives that practically demonstrate WCC’s solidarity with the people of Jos and efforts being made by Jos residents to prevent violent conflicts from occurring and entrenching a culture of durable peace.
The last chapter, which is the eighth, presents the concluding part of the entire research work. The chapter which chronicles on the emerging issues that contributes to the body of knowledge on the subject of Just Peace as a culture and its desirability for overcoming violence in social locations that are prone to violence. In the chapter, the researcher shares his thoughts on some discoveries during the course of the research, which may provoke further researches and stimulate concrete actions for cause of justice and peace.
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