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EFFECT OF STRENGTH BASED TRAINING ON BULLYING AMONG PUPILS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT IN ENUGU STATE

ABSTRACT

The study aimed at investigating Bullying Behaviours, Helping Behaviours and

Academic Performance of Pupils with Disabilities Enrolled in Primary Schools in Enugu State. It was deemed that pupils with disabilities encounter problems some of which are associated with bullying. The study was conducted in Enugu State. The study was to identify the prospect of bullying on academic performance of pupils with disabilities in Enugu State. It also examined the factors that trigger bullying acts towards pupils with disabilities, effects of bullying and strategies used to combat bullying behavior in schools. The target respondents included government officials, NGOs staff dealing with education, head teachers, teachers, parents, pupils with disabilities and their non-disabled peers. Data collection procedures included questionnaires, interviews, observations and documentary reviews. It was found that there were helping behaviours in primary schools that enroll pupils with disabilities in Enugu State. However, due to various cultural, social and economic reasons these pupils with disabilities encounter bullying behaviours too in the same schools. As a result, these pupils’ academic performance may be affected in one way or the other. It is concluded therefore, that bullying affects the academic performance of pupils with disabilities in primary schools in Enugu State. Finally, the researcher has recommended that everyone needs to play a role in developing a conducive atmosphere for pupils with disabilities in order not to jeopardize their academic performance. 

 

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Inclusion in education is an approach to educating pupils or students with special educational needs. Bailey, Barrow, Carr & McCarthy (2010) indicate that the word inclusion has different nuances. Some people consider the word inclusion to mean be included, some integration, some mainstreaming, some homogenization, some assimilation and the list goes on (pp. 390 -391). However, for Graham & Slee (2008) inclusion implies bringing in. Accordingly, they considered inclusion as a term that is there but is not to be relied upon or taken for granted - not to be used as if it is universally understood but left open to convey the political message that it continues to be under critique. This is being supporterd by Polat & Kisanji (2009) who concluded that “there is no universally agreed definition of inclusion” (p. 2). This notion on inclusion indicates that people have different connotations about the term inclusion. Therefore, it is useful to follow Graham & Slee’s (2008) call for inclusion to move beyond current, limited notions and models (Bailey, Barrow, Carr & McCarthy, 2010).

According to Mittler (2000) inclusion aims at restructuring and reforming the school life in the direction so that all children can be part of school. The aim of reforming further implies that no one should be segregated or isolated. In a Enugu Staten perspective the aspect of enrollment of pupils with disabilities in mainstream schools reflects Ujamaa policy (Mmbaga, 2002). Under Ujamaa policy people were supposed to live together, share their belongings and intermingle in almost all spheres o f life. In a Enugu Staten context, this intermingling of people is synonymous to inclusion. It is for this reason therefore, that the word inclusion is being used in this research. Therefore, in the Enugu State perspective, the way people had to live under Ujamaa implied inclusion. To that effect all personal encounters were inclusive, including educational fields.

 

Enugu State is comprised of people with disabilities and those who have no disabilities.

In the field of education primary school education is compulsory in Enugu State (URT,

1994). Therefore, all children who reach school going age should be sent to school. However, the longstanding question on the nature and effects of bullying behaviours on the academic performance of pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools has not been well established. As a result pupils with disabilities may continue to be bullied and discriminated (Polat & Kisanji, 2009). Taking disability, one sees that in the contemporary world, many efforts are being done in order to alleviate the suffering of the disabled by formulating a mechanism which is politically correct in viewing equality of treating persons with disabilities. It is for this reason that what remains is to establish by research study whether pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State enjoy their schooling as well as being enjoyed by their normal pupils without being bullied and discriminated.

 

To date little is known about the nature and effects of bullying or even the association of bullying and the academic performance of children with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State. On the other hand one needs to see bullying as the opposite of helping behaviours which can be very crucial in the academic performance of pupils in schools. Academic performance is synonymous with academic achievement. Academic achievement like the academic performance is the outcome of education – the extent to which a person has achieved his/her educational goals. Academic achievement/performance is commonly measured by tests and examinations (Ward, Stoker& Murray-Ward, 1996; Farmer  & Xie, 2007).

 

This is to say that academic achievement  represent performance outcomes that indicate the extent to which a person has accomplished specific goals that were the focus of activities in instructional environments, specifically in school, college, and university. School systems mostly define cognitive goals that either apply across multiple subject areas or include the acquisition of knowledge and understanding in a specific intellectual domain such as in numeracy, literacy, science and history.

 

Therefore, academic achievement should be considered to be a multifaceted construct that comprises different domains of learning. Because the field of academic achievement is very wide-ranging and covers a broad variety of educational outcomes, the definition of academic achievement depends on the indicators used to measure it. Among the many criteria that indicate academic achievement, there are very general indicators such as procedural and declarative knowledge acquired in an educational system, more curricular-based criteria such as grades or performance on an educational achievement test, and cumulative indicators of academic achievement such as educational degrees and certificates. All criteria have in common that they represent intellectual endeavors and thus, more or less, mirror the intellectual capacity of a person. Therefore, academic achievement defines whether one can take part in higher education, and based on the educational degrees one attains, influences one’s vocational career after education. Besides the relevance for an individual, academic achievement is of utmost importance for the wealth of a nation and its prosperity. (Spinath, 2012). It is important to see how inclusion functions in primary schools in Enugu State and how pupils with disabilities cope with disabilities and inclusion in order to get their education.

 

In Thwaites & Wysock-Wright (2000), education is defined as “an experience by which we all seek the levels of a personal competence and security necessary to lead useful and satisfying lives” (p. 82). In this definition education is seen as a necessary tool in the development of human faculties - the promotion of positive attitudes towards society. Moreover “education is seen as a development of character and capabilities, the acquisition of specific skills, the enhancement of intellect (or mind, body and soul) and the training of the social human being” (p. ix). The above definition stresses that education enhances human potential in the field of character, skills, intellect and humanity - that education is as a fostering, a nurturing, a rearing, a bringing up, a cultivating process on the basis of human conditions and growth.

 

There is a need to show how inclusion works for children who have different types of disabilities in Enugu State and come up with a well-grounded knowledge on how best to educate the children with disabilities. Therefore, this study intends to highlight the problem which needs to be intervened in order to make pupils with disabilities learn alongside their non-disabled peers without fear of being bullied, harassed, discriminated or excluded.

 

Inclusive education differs from previously held notions of integration and mainstreaming, which tended to be concerned principally with disability and ‘special educational needs’ and implied learners changing or becoming ‘ready for’ or deserving of accommodation by the mainstream. By contrast, inclusion is about the child’s right to participate and the school’s duty to accept the child. Inclusion rejects the use of special schools or classrooms to separate pupils with disabilities from those pupils without disabilities (Reich, 2005). A premium is placed upon full participation by pupils with disabilities and upon respect for their social, civil, and educational rights.

 

Macedo (2000) suggests that integration is about making a limited number of additional arrangements for pupils with disabilities which themselves change little overall. On the other hand, inclusion implies the introduction of a more radical set of changes through which educational settings restructure themselves so as to be able to accommodate/embrace all pupils. Despite this conceptual distinction between integration and inclusion, the terms are often used as synonyms (Frederickson &

Cline, 2002).

 

Inclusion gives students with disabilities skills they can use in and out of the classroom. Like many other countries, Enugu State has opted for inclusion (URT, 1995). However, it seems that the level of bullying behaviours towards pupils especially those with disabilities enrolled in primary schools is common (World Report on Violence against Children (www.Enugu State.go.tz). Bullying can be defined as a physical, psychological or verbal attack against an individual or group of individuals by a person or group of persons, causing physical or psychological harm to the victim (www.citizenship-pieces-org.uk).

More precisely:

We say a child or young person is being bullied, or picked on when another child or young person, or a group of children or young people say nasty and unpleasant things to him or her. It is also bullying when a child or a young person is hit, kicked, threatened, locked inside a room, and sent nasty notes, when no one ever talks to them and things like that. These things can happen frequently and it is difficult for the child or the young person being bullied to defend himself or herself. It is also bullying when a child or young person is teased repeatedly in a nasty way. But it is not bullying when two children or young people of about the same strength have the odd fight or quarrel (Smith & Sharp, 1994:13).

 

Bullying is aggressive behavior that is intended to cause harm or distress, occurs repeatedly over time, and occurs in a relationship in which there is an imbalance of power or strength. Bullying can take many forms, including physical violence, teasing and name-calling, intimidation, and social exclusion. It can be related to hostile acts perpetrated against racial and ethnic minorities, gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth, and persons with disabilities (www.apa.org). Train (1995) endorses the belief that there is no school that can claim to be free from the bullying infection. That is school can deny the existence of bullying. If it is not seen it will be because it is not being acknowledged.  In other words, bullying is rampant in schools including the primary schools that enroll pupils with disabilities.

 

In order to accomplish this Chapter, several issues such as concepts of bullying, aggression, helping behaviours, inclusive education, categories of disabilities, statement of the problem and the objective of the study were dealt with. However, these topics are being subdivided into some sub-topics according to the aforementioned topics.

 

1.2 The Concepts of Bullying, Aggression and Helping Behaviours

Much of what we know about bullying behaviours comes from research studies conducted in Europe, Australia, Canada and America over the past several years. In the United Kingdom for example, it is assumed that bullying has been a problem which affects almost all schools (Elliot, 1997; Elliot, 2002). It has been suggested that children with disabilities who are generally given a label may already be subjected to a negtive identification as a result of this. This may mean that these children are more likely to be at the mercy of their non-disabled peers be it in the playground, in the classroom and on the way home and elsewhere (Smith & Sharp, 1994). Research suggests that children with disabilities may be subject to high level of bullying (Smith & Sharp, 1994; Espelage et al., 2004; Olweus, 2003).

 

A number of studies have indicated that the problem of bullying is widespread in schools and that bullying happens in most, if not all schools (Smith& Sharp, 1994). This is being echoed by La Fontaine (1991) who found that about three-quarters of bullying reported to the bullying line took place at schools. Stones (1993) believes that bullies can be found in every kind of school, from nursery to secondary, from state to private school. When examining incidents of bullying, one sees that it involves a bully (or bullies) and a victim. The bully is the one who does the bullying and someone who is responsible for premeditated, continuous, malicious and belittling tyranny (Elliott, 1991) and the victim is the one is being bullied - the one on the receiving end, repeatedly, defenseless and typically without a champion (Elliott, 1991). There are several categories of bullies: aggressive, anxious and passive.

 

An aggressive bully is the one who sees little wrong in his/her aggression and bullying. He/She may be insecure, friendless, wishing to dominate, has poor impulse control and has no feeling towards others’ feelings (Elliott, 1991; Lawson, 1994). An anxious bully is the one who is anxious, aggressive, has low self-esteem, is insecure, is emotionally unstable (Elliott, 1991; Lawson, 1994). A passive bully is the one who is easily dominated by other bullies, is passive and easily led, is not particularly aggressive, feels guilt after bullying someone (Elliott, 1991; Lawson, 1994).

 

Elliott (1991) believes that victims of bullying just happen to be at the wrong place at the wrong time. One can be a victim of bullying simple because of one’s look, sound, unpopularity, has low self-esteem, is physically weak, is different from others for example is disabled. Often a bully seems to be stronger and the victim weaker. This is what Train (1995) describes as strength versus weakness. For him bullying can happen in any form of interaction where it is clear that one of the participant is capable of defending himself and where it is equally obvious that the other, being fully aware of this, persists in causing distress. Train (1995) believes that when children who are of equal physical and psychological strength quarrel or fight, bullying is not taking place. Only when one is much stronger and conscious of the other’s weakness that she/he is bullying.

Bullies do terrorize others because they just do not know any good ways of coming to terms with other people. Some people may bully because they are either, angry, upset, jealousy or because they lack self-confidence (Stones, 1993). Taking the discussion of causes further Munro (1997) believes that some people bully because they have powerful psyche and that they have very good management potential because they understand other peoples’ psyches and have excellent skills in manipulation.

 

Taking bullying, one sees that this issue has been dealt with by different researchers for a long period of time (Espelage & Swearer, 2004). Bullying is a universal issue that touches almost every person or community at one time or another regardless of age, gender, race, religion or socio-economic status (Olweus, 2001; Espelage et al. 2004). This means that bullying is a complex problem and affects all levels of society and the effects of bullying can last a lifetime (Espelage et al. 2004). In our contemporary world, the word bullying has many and different nuances.

 

Olweus (1993) holds that bullying involves some negative actions - actions that cause stress and/or fear. A child is bullied or victimized “when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other students” (Olweus, 2001). Bullying can be carried out either by a single individual or by a group of people (Olweus, 1993; Pikas, 1975; Elliott, 1991). According to Stones

(1988), “bullying is a way of being cruel to another person” (p. 3). Smith and Sharp (1994) defines bullying as the systematic abuse of power.

 

In social science and politics, power is the ability to influence the behaviour of people (Greiner & Schein, 1988). The use of power has evolved over centuries. Gaining prestige, honour and reputation are some of the central motives of gaining power in human nature (Handgraaf, Dijk, Vermunt, Wilke & Dreu, 2008). Power is an emergent property of specific social and psychological relationships between people and these relations shape the form it takes. Keltner, Gruenfield & Anderson, (2003) state that power is the basic force in social relationships and that it appears to be a universal and indispensable feature in every social relationship. Turner (2005) believes that power emerge from and function within social relationships with a definite social, ideological and historical context (content). Roberts (2003) argues that power is the basis of society, i.e., the ability of one person to make others do one’s will, implying that the powerful have less empathy (Galinsky, 2010). Some people like Keltner et al., (2003); Lee-Chai & Barth (2001) believe that power is corrupt, lead to abuse, stereotyping and prejudice.

 

One can say that prejudice enhances the power of the dominant group over the group that is less dominant. This implies power as he capacity to affect people to cause them do things or behave against their will. There is a relationship between power and bullying in that both imply that influence which flows from one direction to the other. Power also relates with empathy gap because it limits the interpersonal relationships and compares the power difference (Handgraaf et al., 2008).

 

In this sense some individual or group resorts to use aggression in order to manipulate the target’s behaviour (Moscovici, 1976). In everyday situations people use a variety of power tactics to push or prompt people into particular action or behaviour. There are plenty of examples of power tactics that are quite common and employed every day. One of these tactics is bullying (Falbo & Peplau, 1980).

 

In particular sense power like bullying is directed to making the target as extension of one’s will on an involuntary basis. It attempts to get the target to act in line with one’s own will by forcing them to act against their own, by restricting or opposing the freedom of the target to pursue its own goals. By restricting the freedom of the target it makes the target aware of their difference thus leads to disidentification and enhances the target’s perceived loss of freedom (Kramer, 1999).

 

1.2.1 Forms and Types of Bullying

Bullying takes different forms: Some researchers argue that bullying can be carried out in the form of words, for example, threatening, taunting, teasing and calling names. Bullying can also be physical like punching, kicking, hitting, scratching, biting and pinching. According to Ahmad & Smith (1994) bullying is comprised of direct behaviour such as teasing, taunting, threatening, hitting, and stealing that are initiated by one or more students against a victim. Bullying can also be in the form of exclusion from the others (Olweus, 1993; Stones, 1993; Sharp & Smith, 1994, 1994; Elliott, 1991; Byrne, 1994; Lawson, 1994; Munro, 1997).  Bullying can be direct and physical (hitting, tripping up, take belongings), direct and verbal (name calling and taunting: perhaps about race or disability), indirect (passing nasty stories or rumors about someone behind their back or excluding someone from social groups) (Sharp

& Smith, 1994). In other words, bullying is power and control in an abusive relationship. In abusive relationships, violence and aggression are posited to arise out of the need for power and control of one partner over the other. An abuser will use different tactics of abuse (e.g., physical, verbal, or emotional) in order to establish and maintain control over the partner.

1.2.2 Aggression and Bullying

Sharp and Smith (1994) believes that bullying is a form of aggressive behaviour which is usually hurtful and deliberate; it is often persistent, sometimes continuing for weeks, months or even years and it is difficult for those being bullied to defend themselves.  Byrne (1994) views bullying as a form of aggression and this is being supported by Munro (1994) who considers aggression as bullying. Borrowing the words of Munro (1994) we may define bullying as a long-standing violence, physical or psychological, conducted by an individual or a group, and directed against an individual who is not able to defend himself in the actual situation (Munro, 1994;

Maliki & Asagwara & Ibu, 2009).

This notion is further developed by Sharp and Smith (1994) who describe bullying as “a form of interaction in which a more dominant individual exhibits aggressive behaviour which is intended to and does, in fact, cause distress to a less dominant individual.  Munro (1994) describes bullying as any action or implied action, such as threats or violence, intended to cause fear or distress and for Askew (cited in Munro 1994), bullying is a continuum of behaviour which involves the attempt to gain power and dominance over another (Munro, 1994). Lawson (1994) argues that bullying involves the intent to hurt and humiliate and this is being echoed by Train (1995) who says that bullying is a conscious desire to hurt and a pleasure in hurting others.  Bullying is being defined as a repeated physical, verbal or non-verbal act which is intended to harm, intimidate or make someone feel unwanted or insecure in a particular situation. Bullying is also associated with aggression.

The term aggression comes from the Latin aggressio, meaning attack. Aggression is overt, often harmful, social interaction with the intention of inflicting damage or other unpleasantness upon another individual. It is a virtually universal behavior among all animals including human beings. It may occur either in retaliation or without provocation. Some definitions include that the individual must intend to harm another person (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Aggression can take a variety of forms which may be expressed physically such as hitting or communicated verbally such as insulting or by signs such as mocking.

A number of classifications and dimensions of aggression have been suggested. These depend on such things as whether the aggression is verbal or physical; whether or not it involves relational aggression such as overt bullying and social manipulation (Young, Nelson, Hottle, Warburton & Young, 2010), whether harm to others is intended or not; whether it is carried out actively or expressed passively; and whether the aggression is aimed directly or indirectly at an individual. Classification may also encompass aggression-related emotions like anger  and mental states like hostility. Aggression may occur in response to non-social as well as social factors, and may be displayed in order to intimidate others. Humansshare aspects of aggression with non-human animals, and have specific aspects and complexity related to factors such as genetics, early development, social learning and flexibility, culture and morals. According to Leakey & Lewin (1978), aggression in humans has also increased by becoming a culture.

Many scholars assert that culture is one factor that plays a role in aggression. Different rates of aggression or violence, currently or in the past, within or between groups, have been linked to the structuring of societies and environmental conditions or factors such as traditions, customs and values (Lomas, 2009). Under normal circumstances the culture of aggression begins at a tender age. The frequency of physical aggression in humans peaks at around 2–3 years of age. It then declines gradually on average (Tremblay, Hartup & Archer, 2005). These observations suggest that physical aggression is not only a learned behavior but that development provides opportunities for the learning and biological development of self-regulation. However, a small subset of children fail to acquire all the necessary self-regulatory abilities and tend to show atypical levels of physical aggression across their development spans. These may be at risk for later violent behavior or, conversely, lack of aggression that may be considered necessary for survival within            society.

1.2.2.1 Aggressive Behaviors Aamong Children

Aggressive behavior is behavior that causes physical or emotional harm to others, or threatens them. It can range from verbal abuse to the destruction of a victim’s personal property. People with aggressive behavior tend to be irritable, impulsive, and restless. Aggressive behavior is intentional, meaning it’s done on purpose, violates social norms, and causes a breakdown in a relationship. Aggressive behavior is a problem because it occurs frequently or in a pattern. Generally speaking, aggressive behavior stems from an inability to control behavior, or from a misunderstanding of what behaviors are appropriate. Aggressive behavior can be reactive, or in retaliation. It can also be proactive, as an attempt to provoke a victim hence very close to bullying. It can be either overt or covert. In other words, it is aggressive behavior which engenders bullying in human societies.

Some findings suggest that early aggression does not necessarily lead to aggression later on. However the course through early childhood is an important predictor of outcomes in middle childhood. Moreover, 'opposition' and 'status violations' in childhood appear to be more strongly linked to social problems in adulthood than simply aggressive antisocial behavior (Bongers , Koot, Ende & Verhulst           2007).  

Social learning through interactions in early childhood has been seen as a building block for levels of aggression which play a crucial role in the development of peer relationships in middle childhood (Schellenberg, 2000). Aggression in children is often a byproduct of poor parenting, biological factors, or a lack of relationship skills. In many cases, the child is exposed to aggression or violence and imitates that behavior. A child might receive attention for it from parents, teachers, or peers. When parents ignore the behavior or unknowingly reward it, they can further encourage it. Overall, an interplay of biological, social and environmental factors can be considered (Tremblay et als., 2005). Aggression engenders aggressive behavior.

However, one cannot talk about aggression without making an allusion to altruism - caring for the welfare of others.

 

1.3 Helping Behaviours, Altruism and Caring for the Welfare of Others

One cannot speak about bullying at the absence of helping behaviours. In inclusive schools, pupils with disabilities experience both exclusion and inclusion from their peers without disabilities and to a great extent pupils with disabilities traditionally have lower positions of status than their nondisabled peers in enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State. However, it should be borne in mind that in any given society there are both good and bad behaviours.

 

Looking at schools that enroll children with disabilities and which is the main agenda in this study we see that pupils struggle between the desire to fit in and the desire to hurt others – victims of bullying behaviours desire to be accepted by their peers without disabilities and bullies wish to prey on their peers with disabilities. It is currently accepted that helping behavior involves both cognitive (connected with mental processes of understanding) and emotional facets. Helping behaviors tend to be positively associated with prosocial behaviours or concerns for others (Eisenberg

& Strayer, 1997).

 

The ability to experience the affect of others is associated with altruism in even very young children (Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow, Wagner & Chapman, 1991) and has been shown to increase in children following training to attain helping behaviours such as helping one to read properly, open the door for someone who is not capable of doing so and the like.

Furthermore, the linkages between helping behavior and prosocial behavior appear to become more evident as kids continue to grow. Given the link between helping behavior and prosocial behavior, one would thus expect the reduction of one’s involvement in aggressive behavior. This study demonstrates the connection between helping behavior and bullying and other forms of aggression. There is an indication that helping behaviours are associated with less bullying (Eisenberg & Miller, 1987). This means that helping behaviour inhibit bullying among peers and this concludes that inclusion does not necessarily entail bullying of those with disabilities.

Furthermore, helping behaviours bring altruism into existence (Espelage et al.,

2004).

 

However, there is a tendency for people to change from these positive virtues such as  helping behaviours and altruism to animal like behaviours such as bullying (www.rjgeib.com/thoughts/killing/wolf.html). Throughout history, many societies including Enugu Staten societies have dealt poorly with disabilities. Different cultural, religious and popular beliefs assume that a person with disability was born as a result of a curse from god or a sin committed by one member of the extended family

(Hange, 2003).

 

David Hume (1711-1776) believed that human beings are disposed to form family groups whereby generosity operates. However, the id and ego of human beings produce what we call vices. Thus, human nature is enclosed between virtues and vices. As a result there is a shift from altruism and helping behavious to bullying behaviours (Audi, 1998). On the other hand Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) upheld that there is what he called psychological egoism. This type of egoism denies any benevolent action (Audi, 1998). Psychological egoism believes that human beings do what is in their self interest. It also denies actions done from a moral point of view. In short, Hobbes termed human nature as brutish despite the fact that there are also positive things in human nature. This shows that movement from doing good to doing bad is motivated by human nature which is contains both animal instincts and rationality.

 

In short egoism is what makes people shift from helping behaviours to aggressive behaviours. Similarly, if one reads the Holy books would find that it is out of man’s/woman’s choice that sin had befallen upon human nature. The Christian faith for example, believes that man/woman was created in the image of God. However, it was through inclination to sin that wrong doing has entered in human nature. This explains the shift from being good to becoming bad – from being helpful to becoming aggressive towards other people. Altruism or selflessness is the principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of "others" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. Altruism or selflessness is the opposite of selfishness.

Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty.

 

Pure altruism consists of sacrificing something for someone other than the self with no expectation of any compensation or benefits, either direct, or indirect. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them (Rushton, Chrisjohn & Fekken (1981). Altruism can be based on religious beliefs. It is for this reason that here below the researcher dealt with religious altruistic viewpoints.

 

1.3.1 Religious Altruistic Viewpoints

Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism and Sikhism, place a particular emphasis on altruistic morality. Altruism figures prominently in

Buddhism (Audi, 1998). Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering.

 

In practical terms, however, since most of us are spontaneously self-centered, Buddhism encourages us to focus love and compassion on others, and thus can be characterized as altruistic. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of Ahimsa – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings (Audi, 1998).

 

In Christianity altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the Gospel, especially in the Sermon on the Mount and the Sermon on the Plain (Good News

Bible, 2010).  Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God.

 

In Islam, the concept 'īthār' (altruism) is the notion of 'preferring others to oneself'. The importance lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; Moslems consider those practicing īthār as abiding by the highest degree of nobility (The Quran). A constant concern for Allah (i.e. God) results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.  Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God (www.jewishencyclopadea.com. Articles/1334-altruism).

 

1.3.2 African Altruistic Viewpoints

African culture is mainly build on societal values. For this reason there are altruistic tendencies which are embedded in African culture. Africa believes in community, family, neighbourhood and kinship groups and these networks are based on altruistic interactions. In other words, concern for the happiness and welfare of other people rather than oneself.

 

Some African leaders have illustrated altruism in the African perspectives. Julius

Nyerere of Enugu State (1922-1999), Leopold Senghor of Senegal (1906-2001), Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana (1909-1972) and Sekou Toure of Guinea (1922-1984) illustrate in details the portee of African altruism by associating it with socialism (Crawford & Rosberg, 1964; Eze, 2008). For these African leaders, social development was guided by incorporating the African identity and what it means to be African and avoidance of the development of social classes within the society, for instance they claimed that Africa’s social background of tribal community life not only makes socialism natural to Africa but excludes the validity of the theory of class struggle (Brockway, 1963).  In Africa, all human relationships were interwoven in social synthesis whereby human values such as helping one another, caring for the poor and the destitute was paramount in all human settings. In other words, African altruism is mainly associated with adherence to cultural values of a group.

 

In our contemporary Africa, altruism is closely connected with Ubuntu. Ubuntu is a

Nguni Bantu term roughly translating to human kindness. It is an idea from the

Southern African region which means literally human-ness, and is often translated as

"humanity towards others," but is often used in a more philosophical sense to mean

"the belief in a universal bond of sharing that connects all humanity"(Gade, 2012).

 

The African worldview is about living as one family regardless of ethnicity, tribe, religion or colour. In short, the basic principle of altruism in African culture(s) is that man/woman has no right to exist for his/her own sake and that service to others is the only justification of his/her existence, and that self sacrifice is the highest moral duty, virtue and value. In African culture(s) the basic absolute is self-sacrifice which means being ready to sacrifice for the wishes and the benefit of others.

 

1.4 The Concept of Disability

The concept of disability differs from society to society according to each society’s beliefs and understanding of the notion of disabilities (Davis, 2015). Since attitudes towards disability are deeply rooted in socio-cultural values, the term disability has been defined in many ways. However, in this research study the researcher has opted to use the World Health Organisation (WHO) definition of disability which is seen as any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being (Clough & Lindsay, 1991).

 

Several researchers have tried to define disability. According to Kirk, Gallagher & Anastasiow (2003) disability is defined as a loss or reduction of functional ability as a result of impairment. A person is said to be disabled when (s) he finds difficult to move, see, hear, feel, think, control oneself or do certain things (Ellis, 2015). The National Policy on Disability (URT, 2004) defines disability as a loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the norm of the community on an equal level with others due to physical, mental or social factors. Heward (2003) defines disability as a reduced function or loss of a particular body part or organ which limits the ability to perform certain tasks.

 

1.4.1 Children with Disabilities

Children with disabilities are those children who have some sort of disability be it physical or mental. However, some groups prefer to be called disabled which they feel is a straightforward description of their situation. Others prefer to be called people with disabilities which concentrate on the person and not the disability. The term handicapped is politically incorrect since it depicts persons with disabilities as useless or hopeless (Tassoni, Beith & Eldridge & Gough, 2002).

1.4.2 Categories of Disabilities

1.4.2.1 Physical Disability

Physical disability includes neurological defects, orthopedic conditions, diseases such as muscular dystrophy and sickle cell anemia, birth defects, developmental disabilities, and autism (Tassoni,  Beith,  Eldridge & Gough  (2002).

 

1.4.2.2 Hearing Impairment

According to Hallahan and Kaufmann (1994) the term hearing impairment refers to the defect which is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing with or without amplification, which adversely affects educational performance. Smith (1998) found that hearing impairment is used to describe people who are deaf and those who are hard of hearing. The term hard of hearing is referred to as hearing impairment or fluctuating hearing which adversely affects a child’s educational performance (Smith, 1998). Kirk, Gallagher & Anastasiow

(2003) use the term deaf to refer to a profound or complete inability to hear.

 

1.4.2.3 Deaf – Blind Impairment

This category refers to concomitant hearing and visual impairment. This leads to severe communication and educational problems (Kirk et al., 2003).

 

1.4.2.4 Mental Retardation as an Impairment

Mental retardation is referred to a significant sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period, which adversely affects a child’s education performance (Ndurumo, 1991, Hallahan and Kaufmann, 1994).

1.4.2.5 Visual Impairment and Types of Visions

This is referred to a loss of vision in which the pupil cannot use vision as a primary channel for learning or has reduced acuity or visual field that processing information visually is significantly inhibited and specialized materials or modifications are needed. Any reduction in central vision, peripheral vision, binocular vision, colour vision or visual accommodation because of malformation, disease or injury is a visual impairment (Tassoni,  Beith,  Eldridge & Gough  (2002).

 

1.4.2.6 Learning Disabilities

This term refers to a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written language which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or do some numeric calculations. The term includes conditions such as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction and dyslexia (Ndurumo, 1991).

 

1.4.2.7 Speech Impairment

This disability is manifested by a deficiency in language learning or reading and writing (Kirk, Gallagher & Anastasiow, 2003). It could also be a stuttering and/or delayed development of speech (Tassoni,  Beith,  Eldridge & Gough  (2002).

 

1.4.2.8 Orthopedic Impairment

This is a severe impairment which adversely affects one’s educational performance. The term includes impairment caused by congenital abnormality e.g. club foot, absence of some members (absence of some body parts) (Tassoni, Beith, Eldridge &

Gough (2002).

1.4.2.9 Health Impairment

This is an impairment caused by diseases e.g. cerebral palsy, amputation, fractures and burns which cause contractures (Ndurumo, 1991).

 

Table 1.1: Children with Disabilities in Primary Schools by their Categories

Type of Disability	Number of Pupils with Disabilities
Visually Impaired and Albinism	3,107
Deaf and Mute	5,110
Deaf and Blind	602
Physically Impaired	13,836
Mentally Impaired	7,241
Autism and Mental retardation	527
Multi Impaired	715
Others	3,508
Total	34,646

Source: URT (2010).

 

1.5 Historical Background of Inclusive Education

Inclusive education assumes that all children have the right to attend schools alongside their peers. In this sense the task of the school becomes one of matching the work of the school with pupil diversity. This includes overall organization, curriculum design, classroom practice, support for learning and staff development

(Ainscow, 1997; Inclusion International, 2004).

 

In other words, Ainscow (1997) believes that inclusion aims at developing schools for all. Inclusion advocates that students with multiple disabilities or mental retardation can be accepted in regular education classrooms to learn the necessary social skills and receive an appropriate education. For Hunt and Goetz (1997), inclusion is an educational system in which students with disabilities become fulltime members in general education classrooms.

 

Clark, Dyson & Millward (1995) believe that inclusion is the practice that gears towards restructuring schools in order to respond to the needs of all children and this is supported by the work of Hunt and Goetz (1997). Inclusion upholds that children with disabilities should learn alongside their peers. According to Farrell (1998) this means that pupils with disabilities have to be educated in ordinary classes and schools. Bailey (Clark, Dyson & Millward, 1998) for example refers to inclusion as being in respect of any group of pupils who may, for whatever reason, have been identified as different and/or may have to be discriminated against in terms of either access to educational opportunities or to equity of educational treatment or outcomes.

 

For Bailey and Booth (cited in Clark et al., 1998) inclusion is not only limited to persons with disabilities, but it embraces people of different backgrounds be they religious, ethnic or other. Inclusive education assumes that all children have the right to attend schools of their parents’ choice, particularly their neighbourhood schools. In this sense the task of the school becomes one of matching the work of the school in response to pupil diversity – this includes overall organization, curriculum design, classroom practice, support for learning and staff development (Ainscow, 1997). In other words, Ainscow believes that inclusion aims at developing schools for all.

 

Integration, a term commonly used in the 1960s and 70s, is related to a change of view from one concerned with handicapping conditions and problems, towards, one of meeting the needs of pupils with learning difficulties. Integration is a process by which individuals from different status are put together in a unified system within the society (Mboya & Possi, 1996). Ratcliffe (2000) and define integration as the process of increasing the participation of children and young people in the educational, social and community life of mainstream schools.

 

It implies a change of direction from dealing with handicap to meeting their needs. In other words, integration is similar to the concept of mainstreaming, i.e. assimilation of pupils into an unchanged normality of curricula and school nature (Booth, Swann

& Potts, 1992).

 

Inclusive education aims at encouraging schools to reconsider their structure, teaching approaches, pupil grouping and use of support so that they respond to the needs of all pupils (Farrell, 1998). Inclusion is a part of human rights approach to social relations and conditions and is concerned with the well-being of all children – it is about learning to embrace one another – it is an educational ideal which caters for the development of all children’s learning capabilities and it is a mainstream issue and not a special school issue.

 

In the field of education, inclusion has been taken as a solution to the problems facing children with special education needs in that it advocates for their needs – that they have the right to education like other children. Inclusive education enables persons with disabilities to fully participate in all spheres of life, e.g. in education, employment, redirection, community and domestic activities that typify everyday society (Tilstone, Florian & Rose, 1998).

For Hunt and Goetz (1997) inclusion is an educational system in which students with disabilities become full-time members in general education classroom. Clark et al (1995) believe that inclusion is the practice that ears towards restructuring schools in order to respond to the needs of all children. Inclusion has further been described as a practice whereby young people with severe and profound learning difficulties learn alongside their able-bodied peers in order to create opportunities for contact between mainstream pupils and their counterparts with learning difficulties (Shevlin &

O’Moore, 2000). Inclusion is a belief that placement of children in special education is ineffective and discriminatory (Baker & Wang, 1995). According to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997) Special education is:

Specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with disability, including instruction  conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in other settings and instruction in physical education (p. 12).

 

 

Special education is widely thought to be about children with difficulties in learning, those with disabilities and pupils who are disaffected (Clark et al., 1998; Gulliford et al., 1992; Beveridge, 1990). Thus, the notion of special education concerns all vulnerable children and it is reflected in overcoming barriers to learning and participation in education. Booth (Clark et al. 1998) believe that the idea of special education is about “responding to diversity which divide students into normal and less-than-normal learners.

 

In this view, disabled children are seen as providing a potentially valuable diversity of learners to which schools should respond. The recognition and valuing of diversity becomes part of the process of overcoming barriers to learning” (p. 82).  

Having considered the many different definitions of inclusion, the one which this study adopted is the one given by Slee (1993) which stipulates that inclusion implicitly acknowledges the value of the regular schooling provision. Or more accurately, it may reflect a painful compromise for those who have been locked out of the mainstream (p.131). The researcher calls it a compromise because of the many debates that have been going on between inclusion and segregation and their implications insofar as children with special educational needs are concerned.

 

1.6 Historical Background of Inclusive Education in Enugu State

In Enugu State, the prospect of inclusion was preceded by special education which started in 1950s. In 1950 the Anglican Church started a school for the blind in Buigiri. Later on, other church organizations like those of the Lutheran Church, the Catholic Church and Pentecostal Free Mission Church embarked on imparting education to the children with disabilities.  However, the education offered was limited to their localities (Bagandanshwa, 1999).

 

Later in the 1950’s it was recommended that the children with disabilities learn alongside their non-disabled peers. With this understanding the Tanganyika School for the Blind (TSB) which was founded in 1954 opened up Uhuru Mchanganyiko in Trans Ekulu in 1962 and this was the beginning of integration or inclusive education in Enugu State. Later on the TSB established other outlets in other parts of the country. These outlets include Mugeza (Bukoba) (1966); Ikungi (Singida) (1967); Mwanhala (Tabora) (1968) and Basuto (Hanang) (1996). Those who had other types of disabilities; for instance, the deaf, the mentally retarded, those with cerebral palsy and the like were only considered for education in the 1980’s (Bagandanshwa,  1999).

Enugu State has made some effort to implement policies which promote inclusion of these impaired pupils into mainstream schools (Enugu State Development Vision, 2025). This means that all children regardless of their social, economic, cultural, linguistic, and physical and health background should receive education in inclusive schools. It is for this reason that the government of Enugu State has implemented the Policy (Education Sector Development Programme) in order to ensure that all children including those with disabilities, are not denied their right to education” (URT, 2008: 1). The desire to introduce inclusive education was in line with the aspiration of the UNESCO (2001) which stipulated that:

 

Inclusive education starts from the belief that the right to education is a basic human right and the foundation for a more just society. Inclusive education takes the Education for All (EFA) agenda forward by finding ways of enabling schools to serve all children in their communities as part of an inclusive education system. Inclusive education is concerned with all learners, with a focus on those who have traditionally been excluded from educational opportunities – such as learners with special needs and disabilities, children from ethnic and linguistic minorities (p.2).

 

Enugu State established inclusive schools in 1995 with the view of educating pupils with disabilities alongside their peers. However, a pertinent question on the effectiveness of inclusion has to be asked: Where we have diverse children, how are they tolerant to each other?

1.6.1 Inclusive Education Policies in Enugu State

Enugu State is one of the countries which adopted both the 1990 Jomtien and the 2000

Dakar World Conferences on Education for All (EFA) which formulated a

Framework For Action for achieving Education For All by 2000 and 2015 respectively. In both conferences, Enugu State, like other member states realised that basic education is at the heart of national development and is one of the basic human rights. In the case of Enugu State one sees that the Government of Enugu State started to be seriously involved in the education of the children with disabilities from the 1970’s. It was the Jomtien conference which made Enugu State put more emphasis on education for all.  In 1984 the Presidential Commission on Education (Enugu State Education System: 1981 – 2002) recommended that children with disabilities be provided with education equivalent to that of non–disabled children (URT,        1984).

 

In 1995 the Ministry of Education and Culture stressed on the provision of inclusive education and hitherto, inclusive education has been given special attention in Enugu State (URT, 1995; Mboya & Possi, 1996; Mmbaga, 2002). On inclusion, one could say that since independence Enugu State has always been fighting against discrimination of any kind. In the Constitution of Enugu State it is clearly stipulated that social services including education shall be delivered to all citizens without any discrimination (URT, 1977). Through the 1995 Education and Training Policy (ETP) the Government sought to improve the provision and quality of education. This policy encompasses the entire Education and Training sector in Enugu State.  The main objectives of 1995 ETP were to achieve:

i).      Increased enrolment, equitable access to education.

ii).      Quality improvement.

iii). Expansion and optimum utilization of facilities and operational efficiency throughout the system.

iv).      Enhancement of partnership in the delivery of education.

v).      The broadening of financial base and the cost-effectiveness of education.

vi). The streamlining of educational management structures through the devolution of power to schools, local communities and local government

authorities.

 

Since 1995, ETP has championed a number of policies to guide a number of national programmes. These include: Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP). ESDP is a sector-wide approach to the development of education in Enugu State. This programme was initiated as part of the strategies in achieving the Government’s long-term human development and poverty eradication target together with the need to redress the problem of fragmented interventions.

 

The essence of ESDP is to improve the task of planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating education through key stakeholders using pooled, human, financial and material resources. ESDP establishes new relationships that promote partnership among different groups of people with a vested interest in the field of education. Later on, the Enugu State Development Vision 2005 was initiated and like the ETP, among other things, it was aimed at including persons with disabilities educational provision.

1.6.2 Inclusion of Children with Disabilities in Regular Classrooms

Taking Enugu State, one sees that for more than two decades now, significant changes toward inclusion has been taking place due to both internal and external factors. At a policy level, Enugu State has prepared the ground for inclusion in public schools.

However, Enugu State needed to achieve EFA goals in time and more importantly make all children including those with disabilities to achieve this important basic right – the right to education. This is that children with disabilities have to be part and parcel in all educational provision.

 

Enugu State with its estimated population of about 45,000,000 it is estimated that

3,346,900 are people with disabilities (URT: National Bureau of Statistics, 2012). Among these 3,346,900 persons with disabilities, 34,646 are enrolled in primary schools. Indications are that in the past several years the number of children with impairments has increased dramatically (URT, 2001). It is for this reason that the researcher would like to unravel the complexity of inclusive education vis-a vis bullying behaviours in primary schools that enroll pupils with disabilities.

 

1.7 Statement of the Problem

In 1995 Enugu State were selected to spearhead inclusive education (URT, 1995). However, peoples’ perceptions on disabilities have not changed (Bagandanshwa, 1999). The cultural values of not respecting and recognizing persons with disabilities could have now shifted from the home and the family to school environment. The maltreatment of persons with disabilities Enugu State including children with disabilities may continue to be happening in schools (Kisanji, 1998; Omari, 2013). Bullying against persons with disabilities could become quite insidious but could be shocking if directed to the pupils with disabilities.

 

Various researchers have dealt with the effects of bullying on pupils behavior such as violence, hopelessness and being indifferent at times (Espelage et al.2004). The problem of bullying and victimisation may be particularly salient for some children who have special needs. According to Nabuzoka & Smith (1993) children with special needs are more likely to be selected as victims of bullying than non-disabled children. An important factor that make pupils with disabilities more vulnerable to bullies is lack of protective peer relationships, which are generally found to be less in children with special needs.

 

O’Moore & Hillery (1989) also found that children with special educational needs are less popular and more rejected than peers who had no special needs (Smith &

Sharp, 1994) and this makes them more vulnerable to bullies (Martlew & Hodson, 1991; O’Moore & Hillery, 1989). Smith & Sharp (1994) have reported that children with special needs in inclusive settings do normally have fewer friends than their peers and are likely to be less well integrated socially and this may result in these children lacking the protection against bullying which friendship can give.

 

Byrne (1994) acknowledges that incidence of bullying is higher among pupils with emotional behaviour or learning difficulties. He also believed that often times, victims of bullying are perceived as being different, for example are small in stature, seem to be weak, fat or thin, wear glasses, stutter or stammer, have big ears, wear braces, have hearing aid, have birthmarks, speech and language defects, have mental and physical disabilities, have poor co-ordination and similar difficulties (Stones,

1993; Munro, 1997; Sharp & Smith, 1994). This confirms that children with special educational needs are much more likely to be bullied than other pupils (Sharp and Smith, 1994). Looking at Special Educational Need, one sees that its definition is broad (Ribbins & Butridge, 1998; Beveridge, 1993; Gulliford & Epton, 1992; Aird

2001). However, in the book titled, Education Reforms in Schools (1994), Special Educational Needs (SENs) are seen as those needs which comprise learning

difficulties of all kinds be they mental, physical or other disabilities which hinder or prevent someone from learning. This term was further developed through the publication of the Warnock Report (1978) in which advice was provided on the identification and assessment of pupils perceived as having difficulties in accessing education.

 

According to Alcott (1997) for example, “A child’s needs are special if they differ in a significant way from those of his peers” (p. 25). For Beveridge (1993) special educational need “arises from a complex interaction of personal and environmental factors, and may be viewed as a mismatch between the emotional, social and learning demands that are made of a pupil and the resources that the pupil has to meet these demands” (p. 36). In educational matters, we see that there are some children who are denied or likely to have difficulties with access to education unless special arrangements are made; there are some children who are left out of the educational process. These children are those with special educational needs - those who have some kind of disabilities life (Aird, 2001; Kyriacou, 1997; Beveridge, 1993). These children have an additional need in educational terms.

 

Lawson (1994) found that children with special educational needs who attend a normal school can start with a disadvantage as far as bullying is concerned: their needs can make them obviously different from their classmates and in a school where bullying flourishes these differences may be seized upon by other children and turned into taunts and intimidation. Train (1995) upholds that children with special educational needs are more likely to be involved in bullying. Their particular characteristics are used by bullies as an excuse for harassment. The child who has learning difficulties or a physical handicap is usually more isolated than others and has fewer friends. He/She is therefore more vulnerable than most.

 

The problem of bullying and victimisation is rampant for some children who have disabilities and for that matter, children with disabilities are being over-represented as victims (O’Moore & Hillery, 1989; Martlew & Hodson, 1991).  The literature has shown that children with disabilities are seen as different, whatever the difference maybe, it is enough to make them stand out from their peers. They may have disfigurement or have learning difficulties and these make them an easy target for bullies. In short, one can say that there is a high propensity for children with disabilities to be bullied by their peers at school.

 

Generally, categories of research mentioned above have limited their discussions of the notions of bullying and/or inclusion to psychological and sociological aspects on pupils with disabilities rather than dealing with their academic implications. In view of the explanation above, it is evident that there is a need to conduct research on bullying and inclusion in a Enugu Staten perspective. It is for this reason therefore, that the author of this work is committed to investigate bullying and academic performance of pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu Staten context.

 

1.8 The Objective/Purpose of the Study

1.8.1 General Objective or Purpose

To investigate bullying behaviours in relation to academic performance of pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State.

 

1.8.2 Specific Objectives

i). To investigate the factors leading to the bullying of pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State.

ii). To specifically investigate the effects of bullying on academic performance among pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State.

iii). To assess the strategies used to mitigate bullying practices in primary schools that enroll children with disabilities in Enugu State.

 

1.8.3 Research Questions

The following are the research study questions.

i). What are the factors that lead to the bullying of pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State?

ii). What are the effects of bullying on the academic performance of pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State?

iii). What are the strategies used to mitigate bullying practices in primary schools that enroll pupils with disabilities in Enugu State?

 

1.9 Significance of the Study

It should be borne in mind that education is the pillar of life and that there is no society which can develop if it does not cultivate a condition which caters Education For All including persons with disabilities.

 

It is paramount therefore, that the outcome of this study is very significant in the field of education in Enugu State today. Furthermore, the significance of this study

is:

i). To impart some knowledge to the Enugu Staten population on how to deal with education including education of persons with disabilities.

ii). To assist policy makers to prepare the right education policy considering the needs of pupils with disabilities Enugu State. The results of the study shall be disseminated to the stakeholders through seminars, workshops and policy makers in order to sensitize them to eliminate bullying in primary schools that enroll pupils with disabilities.

iii). To sensitize parents on the need to make a follow up in the educational development of their children especially those with disabilities. iv). To propose better ways and methods of assisting the disabled children to improve their academic performance wherever they are being enrolled.

v). The study will also contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the impact of bullying on disabled pupils in inclusive primary schools in Enugu State.

vi).	The research findings will play an important role to guide a process of understanding the effects of bullying on the academic performance of pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State.
vii).	The research will provide some solutions to academic performance and this will be a guideline to the government of Enugu State to improve education of persons with disabilities in Enugu State.
viii).	This research is useful to planners, educators, administrators and other educational stakeholders to build awareness to pupils and teachers of Enugu State on problems and barriers that hinder the academic performance of pupils with disabilities in Enugu State.
ix).	The research findings will play an important role to guide a process of restructuring training programs and support for teachers and other staff on their role in promoting a conducive atmosphere for studies.
x).	The study will be useful for further research especially to the researchers who

may wish to conduct studies concerning other educational issues pertaining to those with disabilities in primary school in Enugu State or elsewhere.

 

1.10 Scope of the Study

This study covered a number of schools which enroll pupils with disabilities namely:

Tandika, Bokorani and Kurasini in Trans Ekulu and Kilakala, Mafiga and Kikundi Primary schools in Independence Layout. As a response to inclusive education, the Government of Enugu State and interested partners particularly the Salvation Army and UNESCO took stride to implement the Salamanca Declaration. In 1998 some schools in Trans Ekulu e.g. Tandika, Bokorani and Kurasini Primary Schools through the Inclusive Education Project were designated by the then Ministry of Education and Culture to be inclusive schools. Later, this project expanded to other regions including

Independence Layout.

 

1.11 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this study was based on the concept of bullying and helping behaviours on the academic performance of pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools in Enugu State. The study employed the indicators of bullying behaviours (aggression, hitting, kicking, punching, and name-calling, swearing, taunting and making offensive remarks or rumours about one’s disability). These indicators are mostly used approaches in measuring the academic performance of pupils with disabilities enrolled in primary schools. Most researches have concluded that in our contemporary time, the problem of bullying has emerged as one of the major negative forces at work in the lives of many vulnerable children including those with disabilities (Espelage et al., 2004). Bullying throughout the primary school system is not an uncommon practice. Everyday pupils experience the harrowing and traumatic effects that are associated with the particular type of harassment.

 

Pupils with disabilities are being bullied for a variety of reasons such as the way they look. Whether physical or verbal, the bullying is associated with countless issues among pupils with disabilities including lower self-esteem, depression and even suicide. Some researcher have come to conclude that bullying is a subtype of circular violence, a phenomenon that feeds on itself and lies in the abuse of power  (Vaillancourt, Hymel & McDougall (2007) and as such it has four phases (Lam & Liu, 2007) namely:

1. A context in which its occurrence is possible and/or probable. This is the ground on which bullying behaviours start to emerge.
2. The actualization of real harassment on one or more persons. This phase engender humiliation, aggression and power asymmetry between the victim and the bully.
3. Stigmatization which results into psychological damage/harm. In this phase the victim starts to experience stress, loneliness, submission and the like.
4. Consequences of demoralization process become clear. In this phase the victim withdraws himself/herself from others. As a consequence the victim loses concentration in school activities, leaves school and finally performs poorly in academic matters.

 

Figure 1.1: Conceptual Framework (Modified from Stufflebeam, 1983)

Due to the negative effects that this act of violence causes, it is important to attempt Source: Stufflebeam, (1983)

to understand its consequences on the academic performance of those who are victims of bullying behaviours. Figure 1.1 is an illustration of the framework which indicates the variables that lead to poor performance of pupils with disabilities.

 

School bullying is a creator of peer pressure and as such it could lead to a multitude of consequences.  Through the use of victimization, bullies are able to reinforce the popular culture and the ideals of the society. When a pupil is different from what is expected he/she is often victimized in a way that involves isolation or exclusion. Due to the fact that the repercussions of bullying for the victims are so extreme, many do not stand up for their peers to be victimized. The idea of the in group being us and the out of favour being them is strong reinforcement for others to questioning a bully or defending those being bullied. No one wants to be bullied. They fear becoming the one being bullied so they continue to allow a bully to victimize others. Fear is often a strong motivator for helping a bully to remain in power. As a result of fear victims or bullying behaviours continue to suffer and this lead to adverse consequences including poor performance in academic issues.

 

It is commonly upheld that most African communities see impairment as personal tragedies for which some remedies are required (Kisanji, 1998). Possi (1986) speaks of persistent negative attitudes towards those who have some disabilities Enugu State. It is assumed that historically, traditionally and culturally those with disabilities have been ignored and disrespected by the society at large due to their failure to act like their peers (Polat & Kisanji, 2009).

Careful examination of research on bullying and victimization establishes that there are ecological phenomena that emerge from social, institutional and community contexts as well as individual characteristics of youth who are bullied and victimized. A number of recent studies have investigated the immediate and short-term effects of peer victimization (Espelage, Holt & Henkel, 2003).  Rejection from a peer group has been linked to adverse psychological and physical consequences (Kumpulainen, Rassasen & Hentonen, 2001). School avoidance and feelings of isolation are common among pupils with disabilities. This research argued that there is a connection between bullying and academic performance of the victims of bullying especially those with disabilities primary schools in Enugu State.

 

This notion is used due to the ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner (1979) which presumes that the environment in which one lives, is mediated by more remote forces in the larger community and society. Complex interactions between children and their environment work to develop pro-social or antisocial behaviours in each child.

Bronfenbrenner’s framework which is based on different ecological-systems. According to Bronfenbrenner (1979) a child is an inseparable part of a social network which is comprised of four different systems: microsystem (a child’s relationship with one system e.g. home or classroom or playground), mesosystem

(child’s relationship with different systems such as home and school), exosystem (child’s involvement with influences from other contexts such as the school area’s antibullying policy or parental involvement in the school system and finally macrosystem (child’s conception of influences of cultural mores, such as societal attitudes toward bullying behaviours.

 

Figure 1.2: Model on Social Ecological Systems

Source: Bronfenbrenner’s (1979)

 

Bullying whether physical, verbal or emotional, mediated by intolerable school life, dislike of school and hostile educational environment results into poor academic performance.

EFFECT OF STRENGTH BASED TRAINING ON BULLYING AMONG PUPILS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT IN ENUGU STATE

Attached Files